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Such non\u2010genetic transgenerational inheritance is a potentially important developmental and evolutionary force. We compared the transgenerational effects of maternal and paternal line early stress on anxiety\u2010 and health\u2010related traits in three non\u2010exposed generations (F1, F2 and F3) of semi\u2010naturalistically raised rhesus macaques. As infants, F0 macaques were exposed to nursery rearing (NR) or semi\u2010naturalistic social conditions (CONTROL). Three hundred forty non\u2010exposed F1\u2013F3 descendants were CONTROL reared and physiological and behavioral measures were collected during standardized assessment at 3\u20134\u00a0months of age. Paternal line NR was significantly associated with greater nervousness in F1\u2013F3 and lower immune cell counts in F1\u2013F2. Maternal\u2010line NR effects were not observed. This study suggests that acquired stress\u2010related traits may be \u201cinherited\u201d across generations in primates, through complex social or germ\u2010line mechanisms.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/dev.21771","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,13]],"date-time":"2018-08-13T23:39:56Z","timestamp":1534203596000},"page":"879-888","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Paternal line effects of early experiences persist across three generations in rhesus macaques"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"60","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5402-3513","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Erin L.","family":"Kinnally","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"California National Primate Research Center University of California Davis California"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mireille N.","family":"Gonzalez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"California National Primate Research Center University of California Davis California"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"John P.","family":"Capitanio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"California National Primate Research Center University of California Davis California"},{"name":"Department of Psychology University of California Davis California"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_6_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/PSY.0b013e31825b3d76"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aah3378"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2013.08.011"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1420-9101.2007.01419.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_6_1","first-page":"355","article-title":"Maternal care and mental health","volume":"3","author":"Bowlby J.","year":"1951","journal-title":"Bulletin of the World Health Organization"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1159\/000125484"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2009.06.021"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0002210"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(08)60489-4"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2010.09.008"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/dev.20067"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/PSY.0b013e3182155c83"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0526-08.2008"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0071575"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1205340109"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/dev.20613"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/35003565"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/dev.20430"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archpediatrics.2009.214"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_2_6_21_1","first-page":"89","article-title":"Parental olfactory experience influences behavior and neural structure in subsequent generations","volume":"17","author":"Dias B. 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