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The stability of these molecules prevents their breakdown, which results in ground water contamination across the globe. Perfluoroalkyl substances molecules are known to bioaccumulate in various organisms. However, the health consequences remain unclear due to the large number of molecules in the PFAS family and different effects on various tissues. Here, we use the frog <jats:italic>Xenopus laevis<\/jats:italic> to investigate the developmental consequences of exposure to the PFAS molecule perfluoro\u2010octanoic sulfonate (PFOS).<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>We find that exposure to high levels of PFOS results in significant axial shortening of developing tadpoles. Further, we find that PFOS exposure results in a dose\u2010dependent formation of a cellular mass in the dorsal fin. Unexpectedly, we found that these developmental phenotypes are exacerbated upon co\u2010exposure with commonly used antibiotics. Specifically, PFOS and gentamicin co\u2010treatment results in increased apoptosis, loss of cellular integrity, and increased overall lethality.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title><jats:p>Our results suggest a mechanism whereby gentamicin reaches levels that are toxic to mitochondria only in the presence of PFOS. These findings add to our understanding of PFOS exposure to vertebrate development and present an added concern with potential interactions with antibiotics.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1002\/dvdy.764","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,8]],"date-time":"2025-01-08T05:31:21Z","timestamp":1736314281000},"page":"853-864","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Interaction between perfluoro\u2010octanoic sulfonate and common antibiotics induces developmental anomalies and lethality in <i>Xenopus laevis<\/i>"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"254","author":[{"given":"Emma","family":"Harrison","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Biology Department Simmons University  Boston Massachusetts USA"},{"name":"Department of Pediatrics University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus  Aurora Colorado 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