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In a nationally representative sample of 486 children in the third and fourth grades, we identified 171 children with reading difficulties: 20 (12%) were classified as having a phonological deficit, 31 (18%) as having a naming speed deficit, and 41 (24%) as having a double deficit. Differences between the subgroups extended to reading, cognitive, and linguistic processes beyond phonological and naming abilities. Children with a double deficit performed worse than those with a naming speed deficit but similar to those with a phonological deficit. Numerous unconfirmed theories led to an in\u2010depth analysis of the nature of rapid automatized naming and its relation to orthographic processing. Surprisingly, our findings revealed that orthographic processing may be considered a novel and separate core deficit, suggesting a triple deficit in Arabic rather than a double deficit. The findings are discussed in light of the uniqueness and complexity of Arabic orthography and orthographic transparency in the Arabic language.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/dys.1594","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,20]],"date-time":"2018-07-20T07:35:33Z","timestamp":1532072133000},"page":"234-249","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Examining the double\u2010deficit hypothesis in vowelized\u2013transparent <scp>A<\/scp>rabic in a national representative sample of <scp>G<\/scp>rades 3 and 4"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1182-940X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ibrahim A.","family":"Asadi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Special Education and Learning Disabilities The Academic Arab College for Education in Israel  Haifa Israel"},{"name":"The Unit for the Study of Arabic Language, Edmond J. Safra Brain Research Center for the Study of Learning Disabilities, Faculty of Education University of Haifa  Haifa Israel"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Michal","family":"Shany","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Edmond J. Safra Brain Research Center for the Study of Learning Disabilities, Department of Learning Disabilities University of Haifa  Haifa Israel"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_5_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/0270271950160401"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1008147606320"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/0938-8982.00016"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11145-011-9299-6"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/17586801.2017.1400493"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/17586801.2016.1218748"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02702711.2017.1299821"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_2_5_9_1","first-page":"S1","article-title":"How simple is reading in Arabic? 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