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However, it is unclear how phenotypes respond to synergistic interactions with multiple taxa. We investigate whether interactions with multiple prey species explain spatially structured variation in the skin toxins of the neotropical poison frog <jats:italic>Oophaga pumilio<\/jats:italic>. Specifically, we assess how dissimilarity (i.e., beta diversity) of alkaloid\u2010bearing arthropod prey assemblages (68 ant species) and evolutionary divergence between frog populations (from a neutral genetic marker) contribute to frog poison dissimilarity (toxin profiles composed of 230 different lipophilic alkaloids sampled from 934 frogs at 46 sites). We find that models that incorporate spatial turnover in the composition of ant assemblages explain part of the frog alkaloid variation, and we infer unique alkaloid combinations across the range of <jats:italic>O.\u00a0pumilio<\/jats:italic>. Moreover, we find that alkaloid variation increases weakly with the evolutionary divergence between frog populations. Our results pose two hypotheses: First,\u00a0the distribution of only a few prey species may explain most of the geographic variation in poison frog alkaloids; second,\u00a0different codistributed prey species may be redundant alkaloid sources. The analytical framework proposed here can be extended to other multitrophic systems, coevolutionary mosaics, microbial assemblages, and ecosystem services.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/ece3.5867","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,22]],"date-time":"2019-11-22T04:36:49Z","timestamp":1574397409000},"page":"14317-14329","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Links between prey assemblages and poison frog toxins: A landscape ecology approach to assess how biotic interactions affect species phenotypes"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6314-8852","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ivan","family":"Prates","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Vertebrate Zoology National Museum of Natural History Smithsonian Institution Washington DC USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6484-1210","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrea","family":"Paz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology City College of New York, and Graduate Center City University of New York New York NY USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7153-2632","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jason L.","family":"Brown","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cooperative Wildlife Research Laboratory &amp; The Center for Ecology Southern Illinois University Carbondale IL USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ana C.","family":"Carnaval","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology City College of New York, and Graduate Center City University of New York New York NY USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_9_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bse.2011.10.011"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/ecog.01132"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1461-0248.2012.01807.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jbi.12825"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2699.2010.02290.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_7_1","volume-title":"AntWeb","author":"AntWeb","year":"2017"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/116873.116880"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tree.2011.01.009"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10886-017-0827-y"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolmodel.2013.12.012"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0014-3820.2002.tb00132.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms6046"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/2041-210X.12200"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2699.2009.02260.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7998.1996.tb05487.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinsphys.2011.10.007"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2013.09.018"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0503502102"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/670010"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bse.2009.05.017"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1005437427326"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1834430100"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.222551599"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0041-0101(87)90265-0"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0041-0101(94)90335-2"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/np0580560"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/np900094v"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature04297"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/426599"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1590\/S1519-566X2004000600002"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1446399"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0407197101"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-5347(00)88956-9"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2010.0748"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1472-4642.2007.00341.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/398061","article-title":"Intraspecific and intracolonial variation in the profile of venom alkaloids and cuticular hydrocarbons of the fire ant Solenopsis saevissima Smith (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)","volume":"2012","author":"Fox E. 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