{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]],"date-time":"2026-09-14T13:19:11Z","timestamp":1789391951442,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,8]],"date-time":"2024-10-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1728345600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":7,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Ecology and Evolution"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,10]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title><jats:p>Human fatalities and injury from wildlife attacks often result in a negative attitude toward conservation. This research was undertaken to investigate the patterns and conflict\u2010causing factors of human killing and injury by large mammals, especially by Asian elephant (<jats:italic>Elephas maximus<\/jats:italic>), common leopard (<jats:italic>Panthera pardus<\/jats:italic>), and Bengal tiger (<jats:italic>Panthera tigris tigris<\/jats:italic>) in the Bardia\u2014Banke Complex of western Nepal. We collected human death and injury records caused by wildlife in the Bardia\u2014Banke Complex between 2019 and 2023, based on relief applications submitted by the victim's family. Additionally, camera trap monitoring was conducted following incidents of human\u2013tiger and human\u2013leopard conflicts. A total of 76 incidents involving human casualties and injuries were considered for analysis. Incidents of livestock depredation, crop raiding, and property damage were excluded from the analysis. Most of the attacks on humans were caused by tigers (75%), followed by elephants (16%) and leopards (9%). Almost all incidents occurred in daytime (97%). The highest number of conflicts were recorded in 2021, with 20 incidents. Most of the cases (84%) occurred within 1\u2009km of forest edge. Khata corridor and the western side of the Bardia National Park, i.e., Karnali River corridor, were identified as high\u2010conflict areas. The primary causes of the conflict manifested in cattle grazing (28%), grass cutting (28%), firewood collection (11%), fishing (8%), vegetable collection (5%), sand collection (4%), during rescuing friends (3%), grazing captive elephants (3%), highway rides (3%), sleeping in Chaupadi Goth (3%), walking nearby forest areas (3%), playing nearby forest areas (1%), while feeding pig (1%), and working in agricultural lands (1%). To promote human\u2013wildlife coexistence, community\u2010based patrols (33%), habitat restoration (26%), electric fencing (26%), and insurance (7%) were identified as the preferred strategies. Therefore, we recommend that stakeholders and concerned bodies increase awareness among local community about the use of forest resources, wildlife behavior, and human\u2013wildlife conflict mitigation strategies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/ece3.70395","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,9]],"date-time":"2024-10-09T05:40:22Z","timestamp":1728452422000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Human\u2013Wildlife Conflict in Bardia\u2014Banke Complex: Patterns of Human Fatalities and Injuries Caused by Large Mammals"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Umesh","family":"Paudel","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"National Trust for Nature Conservation  Lalitpur Nepal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6877-0525","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rabin\u00a0Bahadur","family":"KC","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Trust for Nature Conservation  Lalitpur Nepal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rabin","family":"Kadariya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Trust for Nature Conservation  Lalitpur Nepal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9672-3913","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ajay","family":"Karki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation  Kathmandu Nepal"},{"name":"Department of Zoology and Physiology University of Wyoming  Laramie Wyoming USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bishnu\u00a0Prasad","family":"Shrestha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation  Kathmandu Nepal"},{"name":"Wildlife Ecology and Conservation Wageningen University and Research (WUR)  Wageningen The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shyam\u00a0Kumar","family":"Shah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation  Kathmandu Nepal"},{"name":"Agriculture and Forestry University  Chitwan Nepal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Naresh","family":"Subedi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Trust for Nature Conservation  Lalitpur Nepal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4905-079X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shyam\u00a0Kumar","family":"Thapa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Trust for Nature Conservation  Lalitpur Nepal"},{"name":"Zoological Society of London Nepal Office  Kathmandu Nepal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_11_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0161717"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_3_1","unstructured":"BaNP.2022.\u201cBanke National Park and Its Buffer Zone Management Plan 2080\/81\u20132084\/85.\u201dBanke National Park."},{"key":"e_1_2_11_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0260307"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ece3.10140"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.33002\/nr2581.6853.03033"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_7_1","unstructured":"Bhattarai B. R.2009.\u201cHuman\u2013Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) Conflict in Bardia National Park Nepal.\u201dMasters of Science in Landscape Ecology and Nature Conservation Ernst Moritz Arndt University of Greifswald."},{"key":"e_1_2_11_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/environments3040032"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10344\u2010019\u20101270\u2010x"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_10_1","unstructured":"BNP.2022.\u201cManagement Plan of Bardia National Park and Its Buffer Zone (FY 2079\/80\u20132083\/84).\u201dBardia National Park."},{"key":"e_1_2_11_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598\u2010018\u201036034\u20107"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_12_1","volume-title":"Nepal Census 2021","author":"CBS Nepal","year":"2022"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1641\/b570608"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/land12061156"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0030605311001803"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_16_1","unstructured":"DNPWC.2022.\u201cAnnual Report 2078\/79. Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Department of Forests and Soil Conservation.\u201d"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_17_1","unstructured":"DNPWC and DFSC.2022.\u201cStatus of Tigers and Prey in Nepal 2022. Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Department of Forests and Soil Conservation.\u201d"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_18_1","first-page":"23","article-title":"Complex Consequences of Conservation Success: Emerging Human\u2013Tiger Conflicts in Nepal","volume":"72","author":"Fitzmaurice A.","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cat News Special Issue"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1890\/14\u20102010.1"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocon.2008.09.013"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_21_1","unstructured":"Hudu B. T.Shuvani B.Nabin et\u00a0al.2017.\u201cMitigating Human\u2013Wildlife Conflict in Nepal: A Case Study of Fences Around Chitwan National Park.\u201dInICIMOD Working Paper(Issue 2017\/14).https:\/\/doi.org\/10.13140\/RG.2.2.33992.83207."},{"key":"e_1_2_11_22_1","unstructured":"IUCN SSC Human\u2013Wildlife Conflicts Task Force.2020.\u201cWhat Is Human\u2013Wildlife Conflict? 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