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Among those, interactions between flies and amphibians are common in tropical areas, yet most aspects of their ecology and evolution are understudied. Using the PRISMA method, we systematically review the literature to examine the direct and indirect threats imposed by Diptera flies attacking amphibians and the behavioral, physiological, and acoustic defenses they elicit. We delve, for instance, into the eavesdropping behavior of some dipteran species, which use anuran calls as cues for host\u2010seeking, and the potential impacts on frog communication systems. As flies can be disease vectors, we investigate pathogen transmission to amphibians as an indirect cost imposed by flies attacking them and examine the role of species specificity in these dynamics. Finally, we address how human activities are currently impacting these long\u2010established interactions between dipterans and amphibians. We focus on potential disruptions caused by habitat alteration, the presence of invasive species, and climate change. By synthesizing existing knowledge of the threats imposed by flies on amphibians, we shed light on these groups of growing conservation concern given their current escalating extinction rates. Ultimately, our findings provide valuable insights into the intricacies of species interactions and underscore the urgent need for comprehensive studies mitigating the adverse effects of anthropogenic disturbances on these clades.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/ece3.72737","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,13]],"date-time":"2026-01-13T08:36:01Z","timestamp":1768293361000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Amphibian Strategies Against Attacks by Flies: Host\u2010Specificity and Threats"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0186-8552","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leonardo Leite Ferraz","family":"de Campos","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ecology and Zoology, Graduate Program in Ecology Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina  Florian\u00f3polis Santa Catarina Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Luiz Carlos","family":"Pinho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ecology and Zoology, Graduate Program in Ecology Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina  Florian\u00f3polis Santa Catarina Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Selvino","family":"Neckel\u2010Oliveira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ecology and Zoology, Graduate Program in Ecology Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina  Florian\u00f3polis Santa Catarina Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ximena E.","family":"Bernal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences Purdue University  West Lafayette Indiana USA"},{"name":"Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute  Anc\u00f3n Panama"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_12_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/eth.12452"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1655\/06-005.1"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.161.3845.1023"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.89134"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijppaw.2019.09.005"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocon.2023.110310"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12911"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0014\u20104894(62)90052\u20108"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_10_1","volume-title":"ITIS, International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) and Legume Phylogeny Working Group (LPWG)","author":"B\u00e1nki O.","year":"2023"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1139\/z69-059"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1603\/0013\u20108746(2008)101%5B95:PTAVIC%5D2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1645\/GE-1793.1"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/12.2.209"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/510729"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijppaw.2016.01.005"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/beheco\/arl003"},{"issue":"3","key":"e_1_2_12_18_1","first-page":"501","article-title":"Mosquitoes (Mimomyia elegans (Taylor)) Feeding on the Introduced Toad Bufo Marinus (Linnaeus): Implications for Control of a Toad Pest","volume":"20","author":"Beurden E. 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