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Non\u2010invasive sampling (NIS) offers a potential solution, yet its reliability for generating conservation\u2010relevant genetic data in endangered Lepidoptera remains insufficiently evaluated. The feasibility of NIS was assessed in the Chinese endemic butterfly\n                    <jats:italic>Luehdorfia chinensis<\/jats:italic>\n                    by comparing DNA yield and quality from naturally shed materials, including larval and pupal exuviae and frass, across developmental stages and preservation methods. All material types yielded amplifiable COI sequences, with fifth\u2010instar larval exuviae preserved at \u221220\u00b0C or in anhydrous ethanol consistently providing the highest DNA quality, indicating strong suitability for COI\u2010based population\u2010level analyses and long\u2010term monitoring. By integrating NIS\u2010derived sequences with publicly available COI data from additional populations, two geographically structured genetic lineages were identified, corresponding to low\u2010altitude populations in the Yangtze River basin (\n                    <jats:italic>L.\u2009c.\u2009chinensis<\/jats:italic>\n                    ) and high\u2010altitude populations in the Qinling Mountains (\n                    <jats:italic>L.\u2009c.\u2009huashanensis<\/jats:italic>\n                    ). These lineages were separated by five mutational steps and accounted for 82.9% of among\u2010group genetic variance (AMOVA), consistent with recognized subspecific boundaries and reflecting the role of mountain\u2013basin topography in limiting gene flow. Lower genetic diversity in populations broadly consistent with\n                    <jats:italic>L.\u2009c.\u2009huashanensis<\/jats:italic>\n                    may indicate potential conservation concern under environmental change and habitat fragmentation. Overall, the results demonstrate that non\u2010invasive materials can yield robust genetic data for resolving population structure in protected butterflies, supporting their broader application in conservation genetics and management.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/ece3.73764","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,4]],"date-time":"2026-06-04T22:30:04Z","timestamp":1780612204000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Non\u2010Invasive Sampling Reveals Genetic Differentiation and Lineage Structure in the Rare Butterfly\n                    <i>Luehdorfia chinensis<\/i>\n                    Leech (Lepidoptera Papilionidae)"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-1820-0029","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wen\u2010Jing","family":"Yang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Jiangxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Conservation Biology, Key Laboratory of National Forestry and Grass and Administration on Forest Ecosystem Protection and Restoration of Poyang Lake Watershed, College of Forestry Jiangxi Agricultural University  Nanchang People's Republic of China"},{"name":"Lushan Forest Ecosystem Observation Station Lushan National Nature Reserve of Jiangxi  Jiujiang People's Republic of China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hui\u2010dan","family":"OuYang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vocational Normal College Jiangxi Agricultural University  Nanchang People's Republic of China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qi","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jiangxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Conservation Biology, Key Laboratory of National Forestry and Grass and Administration on Forest Ecosystem Protection and Restoration of Poyang Lake Watershed, College of Forestry Jiangxi Agricultural University  Nanchang People's Republic of China"},{"name":"Lushan Forest Ecosystem Observation Station Lushan National Nature Reserve of Jiangxi  Jiujiang People's Republic of China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yun\u2010Hao","family":"Zou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jiangxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Conservation Biology, Key Laboratory of National Forestry and Grass and Administration on Forest Ecosystem Protection and Restoration of Poyang Lake Watershed, College of Forestry Jiangxi Agricultural University  Nanchang People's Republic of China"},{"name":"Lushan Forest Ecosystem Observation Station Lushan National Nature Reserve of Jiangxi  Jiujiang People's Republic of China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bin","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Taohongling Sika Deer National Nature Reserve of Jiangxi  Pengze People's Republic of China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shi","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lushan Forest Ecosystem Observation Station Lushan National Nature Reserve of Jiangxi  Jiujiang People's Republic of China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Guang\u2010Ping","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jiangxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Conservation Biology, Key Laboratory of National Forestry and Grass and Administration on Forest Ecosystem Protection and Restoration of Poyang Lake Watershed, College of Forestry Jiangxi Agricultural University  Nanchang People's Republic of China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Guo\u2010fang","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Oceanology and Food Science Quanzhou Normal University  Quanzhou People's Republic of China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ju\u2010Ping","family":"Zeng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jiangxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Conservation Biology, Key Laboratory of National Forestry and Grass and Administration on Forest Ecosystem Protection and Restoration of Poyang Lake Watershed, College of Forestry Jiangxi Agricultural University  Nanchang People's Republic of China"},{"name":"Lushan Forest Ecosystem Observation Station Lushan National Nature Reserve of Jiangxi  Jiujiang People's Republic of China"},{"name":"Jiulianshan Forest Ecosystem Observation Station Jiulianshan National Nature Reserve of Jiangxi  Longnan People's Republic of China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_13_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/cpt.2007.0511"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_3_1","first-page":"63","volume-title":"Population Genomics: Wildlife","author":"Andrews K. 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