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Documenting tri\u2010trophic interactions in these ecosystems is essential to advance understanding of how community dynamics and specialisation shape network structure. Here we present the largest and most comprehensive plant\u2013gall\u2013parasitoid network to date. We sampled galls and reared parasitoids from three sites in lowland rainforest near Madang, Papua New Guinea, and combined them into a single quantitative tri\u2010trophic network. Network statistics were calculated, and gall traits (taxon, apparency, openness, plant module, and pubescence) were tested as predictors of parasitoid richness. We also analysed the potential for apparent competition (PAC) among galls. The network comprised 32 host plant species, 78 galling insect species, and 102 parasitoid species represented by 820 individuals. Monophagous species dominated both gallers and parasitoids, producing high specialisation (H2\u2032\u2009=\u20090.99 for plant\u2013gall and 0.90 for gall\u2013parasitoid subwebs). Gall apparency and gall\u2010forming taxon significantly predicted parasitoid assemblage size: conspicuous galls formed by Cecidomyiidae hosted more parasitoid species. One third of gall species shared no parasitoids, and the remainder showed very low PAC, suggesting limited interspecific enemy\u2010mediated interactions but potential for intraspecific density dependence. The existence of highly specialised tri trophic food webs in tropical rainforests has been questioned, given the challenges posed by extreme specificity. Such networks require parasitoids specialised to herbivores that are themselves restricted to single plant species, raising doubts about their feasibility in diverse ecosystems. Our study demonstrates that these networks do occur, with gall forming insects and their parasitoids providing clear evidence of highly specialised tri trophic interactions in tropical forests. We also discuss the potential existence of a latitudinal gradient in gall\u2010parasitoid specialisation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/ece3.74375","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T11:20:32Z","timestamp":1791285632000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Gall Apparency Drives Parasitoid Richness in a Highly Specialised Gall\u2010Parasitoid Food Web From a Tropical Rainforest"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5554-6591","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Philip T.","family":"Butterill","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Entomology Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences  Ceske Budejovice Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8313-0104","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sam","family":"Finnie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Entomology Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences  Ceske Budejovice Czech Republic"},{"name":"Faculty of Science University of South Bohemia  Ceske Budejovice Czech Republic"},{"name":"Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences  Menglun, Mengla County Yunnan China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3436-0579","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Katerina","family":"Sam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Entomology Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences  Ceske Budejovice Czech Republic"},{"name":"Faculty of Science University of South Bohemia  Ceske Budejovice Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1667-1189","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tom M.","family":"Fayle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Entomology Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences  Ceske Budejovice Czech Republic"},{"name":"School of Biological and Behavioural Sciences Queen Mary University of London  London UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Inga","family":"Freiberga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Entomology Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences  Ceske Budejovice Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vojtech","family":"Novotny","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Entomology Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences  Ceske Budejovice Czech Republic"},{"name":"Faculty of Science University of South Bohemia  Ceske Budejovice Czech Republic"},{"name":"The New Guinea Binatang Research Centre  Madang Papua New Guinea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_11_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1021993017237"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4615-8732-3_7","volume-title":"Evolutionary Strategies of Parasitic Insects and Mites","author":"Askew R. 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