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Which species are most vulnerable to climate change? Which are the most important adaptive traits and environmental drivers of natural selection? Even though species have been classified as adaptive specialists vs. adaptive generalists, large\u2010scale studies comparing different species in the same experiment are rare. We studied the genecology of Norway spruce (<jats:italic>Picea abies<\/jats:italic>) and silver fir (<jats:italic>Abies alba<\/jats:italic>), two co\u2010occurring but ecologically distinct European conifers in Central Europe. For each species, we collected seed from more than 90 populations across Switzerland, established a seedling common\u2010garden test, and developed genecological models that associate population variation in seedling growth and phenology to climate, soil properties, and site water balance. Population differentiation and associations between seedling traits and environmental variables were much stronger for Norway spruce than for silver fir, and stronger for seedling height growth than for bud phenology. In Norway spruce, height growth and second flushing were strongly associated with temperature and elevation, with seedlings from the lowlands being taller and more prone to second flush than seedlings from the Alps. In silver fir, height growth was more weakly associated with temperature and elevation, but also associated with water availability. Soil characteristics explained little population variation in both species. We conclude that Norway spruce has become an adaptive specialist because trade\u2010offs between rapid juvenile growth and frost avoidance have subjected it to strong diversifying natural selection based on temperature. In contrast, because silver fir has a more conservative growth habit, it has evolved to become an adaptive generalist. This study demonstrates that co\u2010occurring tree species can develop very different adaptive strategies under identical environmental conditions, and suggests that Norway spruce might be more vulnerable to future maladaptation due to rapid climate change than silver fir.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/ecy.1632","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,1,13]],"date-time":"2017-01-13T06:37:50Z","timestamp":1484289470000},"page":"211-227","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":42,"title":["Distinct genecological patterns in seedlings of<scp>N<\/scp>orway spruce and silver fir from a mountainous landscape"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"98","author":[{"given":"Aline","family":"Frank","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research WSL, CH\u20108903 Birmensdorf Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christoph","family":"Sperisen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research WSL, CH\u20108903 Birmensdorf Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Glenn Thomas","family":"Howe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Forest Ecosystems and Society Oregon State University 321 Richardson Hall Corvallis Oregon 97331\u20105752 USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter","family":"Brang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research WSL, CH\u20108903 Birmensdorf Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lorenz","family":"Walthert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research WSL, CH\u20108903 Birmensdorf Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"John Bradley","family":"St.Clair","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pacific Northwest Research Station USDA Forest Service 3200 SW Jefferson Way Corvallis Oregon 97331\u20104401 USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Caroline","family":"Heiri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research WSL, CH\u20108903 Birmensdorf Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,1,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_6_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/B0-12-145160-7\/00086-7"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-015-9650-3_2"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-ecolsys-110512-135747"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1752-4571.2007.00013.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.12181"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2014.04.006"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v067.i01"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1139\/x03-224"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/ele.12150"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/insr.12052"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_12_1","first-page":"339","article-title":"Tests comparatifs de provenances vaudoises d\u2019\u00e9pic\u00e9a","volume":"134","author":"Bossel F.","year":"1983","journal-title":"Schweizerische Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Forstwesen"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3732\/ajb.95.1.66"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_14_1","first-page":"279","article-title":"Die h\u00e4ufigsten Waldb\u00e4ume der Schweiz. 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