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While viral and bacterial infections represent the most frequent triggers, fungal and parasitic agents can also contribute, though less commonly.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This narrative review, based on a search in PubMed and Google Scholar, examined both paediatric and adult studies, given the limited evidence available in children. The analysis focused on the pituitary, thyroid, adrenal glands, gonads and endocrine pancreas, summarising current knowledge on the acute and long\u2010term endocrine consequences of infections.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Reported outcomes range from type 1 diabetes mellitus and adrenal insufficiency to hypopituitarism, thyroiditis and hypogonadism. These complications may appear during the acute phase or emerge later as delayed sequelae, with significant implications for prognosis, quality of life and overall morbidity. The review highlights the need for increased clinical awareness, timely recognition of infection\u2010related endocrine dysfunctions, and structured follow\u2010up to prevent long\u2010lasting complications.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Further translational and clinical studies are warranted to clarify underlying mechanisms, identify early biomarkers and develop evidence\u2010based diagnostic and therapeutic strategies, ultimately improving patient care and outcomes in both paediatric and adult populations. In the future, through genomic and transcriptomic techniques, the identification of the dysregulated cellular pathways could help clarify the real \u2018cause\u2010and\u2010effect\u2019 relationship between infections and cellular dysfunction.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1002\/edm2.70259","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]],"date-time":"2026-07-03T06:46:47Z","timestamp":1783061207000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Interplay Between Infectious Diseases and the Endocrine System: An Overview and Clinical Insights"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Francesco","family":"Capoccia","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Surgery University of Parma  Parma Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Valentina","family":"D'Onghia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Surgery University of Parma  Parma Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Valentina","family":"Semeraro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Surgery University of Parma  Parma Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Esposito","family":"Susanna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Surgery University of Parma  Parma Italy"},{"name":"Pediatric Clinic University Hospital of Parma  Parma Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria Elisabeth","family":"Street","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Surgery University of Parma  Parma Italy"},{"name":"Pediatric Clinic University Hospital of Parma  Parma Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_14_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tem.2007.03.003"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms11020361"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/biology14080981"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE\u201007\u20100484"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12022\u2010023\u201009771\u20103"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1472\u20106823\u201014\u201080"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/thy.2008.0146"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12020\u2010020\u201002592\u2010y"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140\u20106736(24)00342\u20108"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_11_1","first-page":"271","volume-title":"Handbook of Clinical Neurology","author":"Pekic S.","year":"2014"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_12_1","volume-title":"Endotext","author":"Pekic S.","year":"2000"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03346395"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11102\u2010011\u20100371\u20107"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2010\u20100144"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11102\u2010013\u20100476\u20102"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11102\u2010013\u20100547\u20104"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3109\/00365513.2015.1129669"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1159\/000322238"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm8111801"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415\u2010022\u201011052\u20108"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2169\/internalmedicine.54.3435"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11102\u2010010\u20100234\u20107"},{"key":"e_1_2_14_24_1","unstructured":"K. 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