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In this study, we found that the water soluble fraction (WSF) of crude oil irradiated with solar\u2010simulated light (SSL) generated phosphorylation of histone H2AX (\u03b3\u2010H2AX) in human skin cells under UVA irradiation, which was due to the formation of DNA double strand breaks (DSBs). Crude oil was exposed to SSL for \u223c7 days. The WSF obtained from unexposed crude oil showed no toxicity, whereas the WSF obtained from crude oil pre\u2010exposed to SSL induced acute cell death on exposure to UVA irradiation (induction of phototoxicity), which was more remarkable in human skin fibroblasts than human skin keratinocytes. \u03b3\u2010H2AX was detected in both cell lines immediately after treatment with the WSF plus UVA. Interestingly, \u03b3\u2010H2AX was detectable even at low SSL\u2010 and UVA\u2010doses, which induced no cytotoxicity. The WSF of crude oil irradiated with SSL, generated DSBs under UVA irradiation, which were detected by biased sinusoidal field gel electrophoresis. This was confirmed using xrs\u20105 cells isolated from CHO\u2010K1 cells, which are deficient in a repair enzyme for DSBs; the WSF plus UVA induced a more dramatic decrease in survival in xrs\u20105 cells than CHO\u2010K1 cells. These findings demonstrate that exposure of crude oil to sunlight makes the WSF phototoxic, generating DSBs accompanying the appearance of \u03b3\u2010H2AX in human skin cells. Environ. Mol. Mutagen., 2007. \u00a9 2007 Wiley\u2010Liss, Inc.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/em.20292","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2007,3,19]],"date-time":"2007-03-19T23:02:27Z","timestamp":1174345347000},"page":"430-439","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Water soluble fraction of solar\u2010simulated light\u2010exposed crude oil generates phosphorylation of histone H2AX in human skin cells under UVA 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