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The review also lists desired data: modulation depth at 100\/120\u2009Hz, waveform and driver parameters, neurological symptoms, and ethically possible seizure\u2010incidence observations under measured lighting. The narrative focused review used a structured search of recent literature and targeted inclusion of foundational and immediately relevant findings. Intermittent photic stimulation and visible flicker, prolonged exposure to invisible or supra\u2010CFF TLM, temporal light artifacts during eye movements, modulation depth and waveform, and practical study designs for neurological and seizure data were categorized. Visible flicker in photosensitive epilepsy, notably in the 3\u201365\u2009Hz range, with maximal sensitivity at 15\u201325\u2009Hz, is the strongest evidence. Susceptible people may have seizures after intense stroboscopic exposure, but this does not prove that LED illumination with high\u2010frequency imperceptible modulation causes seizures. Even without seeing the flicker, continuous exposure to 100\u2009Hz lights can cause headaches, eyestrain, and increased visual\u2010cortex activity, according to foundational research. Phantom array effects reveal that supra\u2010CFF modulation may cause visual discomfort during saccades. Direct evidence relating typical LED modulation depth to seizures is missing. Evidence suggests caution, not causality. Thus, the paper's goals are to define what is known and what should not be overinterpreted and to suggest ways to gather more data. Because seizures are rare and safety\u2010critical, double\u2010masked studies should initially prioritize more common and lower\u2010risk outcomes like headache, eyestrain, visual discomfort, task performance, and cortical activation in relation to modulation depth, while seizure incidence should be examined through carefully monitored secondary endpoints or prospective surveillance under measured lighting conditions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/epd2.70366","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]],"date-time":"2026-08-24T13:46:52Z","timestamp":1787579212000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Temporal light modulation from\n                    <scp>LED<\/scp>\n                    lighting and seizure risk: A focused review of visible flicker, invisible modulation, and evidence 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