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For each cardiovascular outcome, an independent matched cohort was constructed, comprising 1740 to 3164 patients with newly diagnosed epilepsy and corresponding 10\u2010fold matched controls. The primary outcomes included six CVDs: hypertension (HTN), ischemic heart disease (IHD), cardiac arrhythmia (CA), heart failure (HF), atherosclerosis (AS), and peripheral artery disease (PAD). Incidence rate ratios (IRRs) and adjusted hazard ratios (aHRs) were calculated using multivariable Cox regression models.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Epilepsy was significantly associated with increased risk of all six CVDs. The highest aHRs were observed for CA (2.02 [95% CI, 1.70\u20132.39]), IHD (1.71 [95% CI, 1.50\u20131.95]), and HF (1.64 [95% CI, 1.28\u20132.10]). Risk was higher in patients aged &lt;60\u2009years and in men. Notably, younger patients showed substantially elevated risks for CA (2.61 [95% CI, 1.99\u20133.42]) and AS (2.06 [95% CI, 1.47\u20132.89]). The sex\u2010specific difference was most prominent for HF, with higher aHRs in men (1.86 [95% CI, 1.29\u20132.67]) than in women (1.49 [95% CI, 1.07\u20132.09]).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Significance<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Patients with epilepsy have a significantly increased long\u2010term risk of CVD, especially CA, IHD, and HF. Risk is disproportionately elevated in younger individuals and men, suggesting the need for targeted cardiovascular surveillance and prevention in these subgroups.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Plain Language Summary<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>People with epilepsy may face a higher risk of heart and blood vessel diseases such as heart attack, irregular heartbeat, and heart failure. This study analyzed national health data from Korea and found that epilepsy patients had more cardiovascular problems than those without epilepsy, especially younger men. These results suggest that doctors should monitor heart health more closely in people living with epilepsy.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1002\/epi4.70185","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,14]],"date-time":"2025-11-14T10:16:13Z","timestamp":1763115373000},"page":"170-182","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Cardiovascular morbidity following epilepsy: A nationwide retrospective cohort study in South Korea"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1226-1414","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Youngoh","family":"Bae","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurological Surgery, Asan Medical Center University of Ulsan College of Medicine  Seoul Republic of Korea"},{"name":"Department of Precision Medicine Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine  Suwon Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-2680-2526","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chaeyoon","family":"Kang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine  Seoul Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-6853-8702","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yejin","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dongguk University College of Medicine  Gyeongju Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-2947-7192","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Haerim","family":"Cho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine  Seoul Republic of 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