{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]],"date-time":"2026-09-22T11:10:36Z","timestamp":1790075436700,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":27,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,6]],"date-time":"2017-07-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1499299200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/pages\/standard-publication-reuse-rights"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,8,23]],"date-time":"2017-08-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1503446400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":48,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["setac.onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,6]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:sec><jats:title>\u2003<\/jats:title><jats:p>The synthetic progestin levonorgestrel is commonly utilized in human oral contraceptives. It enters the environment as a component of wastewater treatment plant effluent, and has been measured at low ng\/L concentrations in surface waters. It has been shown to activate fish androgen receptors, causing the physical masculinization of females, changes in reproductive behavior, and decreases in fecundity. In the present study, the effects of levonorgestrel exposure on early-stage oogenesis in the fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) was examined. Adult females were exposed to 0, 10, or 100\u2009ng\/L levonorgestrel for 14 d using a flow-through exposure system. The ovaries from each female were then removed via dissection and weighed for gonadosomatic index (GSI) calculations, and oocytes from one lobe preserved in Serra's fixative. Total numbers of late-stage vitellogenic oocytes exhibiting a germinal vesicle were then quantified. In a second exposure, blood plasma samples were collected from adult females and analyzed for vitellogenin concentrations using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Females exposed to both concentrations of levonorgestrel developed male secondary sexual characteristics in a dose-dependent manner, and ovaries contained significantly fewer late stage oocytes. Exposure to 100\u2009ng\/L of levonorgestrel resulted in decreased GSI and blood plasma vitellogenin concentrations. The results suggest that female exposure to levonorgestrel alone may have profound effects on reproduction in progestin-contaminated environments. Environ Toxicol Chem 2017;36:3299\u20133304. \u00a9 2017 SETAC<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1002\/etc.3906","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,6]],"date-time":"2017-07-06T11:15:23Z","timestamp":1499339723000},"page":"3299-3304","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Exposure effects of levonorgestrel on oogenesis in the fathead minnow (<i>Pimephales promelas<\/i>)"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"36","author":[{"given":"Tyler","family":"Frankel","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of BiologyHoward University Washington, DC USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lance","family":"Yonkos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Science and TechnologyUniversity of Maryland College Park Maryland 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