{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,20]],"date-time":"2026-09-20T12:41:58Z","timestamp":1789908118085,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":134,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,2,14]],"date-time":"2015-02-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1423872000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":43,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Evolutionary Anthropology"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2015,1,2]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>The postcranial axial skeleton exhibits considerable morphological and functional diversity among living primates. Particularly striking are the derived features in hominoids that distinguish them from most other primates and mammals. In contrast to the primitive catarrhine morphotype, which presumably possessed an external (protruding) tail and emphasized more pronograde trunk posture, all living hominoids are characterized by the absence of an external tail and adaptations to orthograde trunk posture. Moreover, modern humans evolved unique vertebral features that satisfy the demands of balancing an upright torso over the hind limbs during habitual terrestrial bipedalism. Our ability to identify the evolutionary timing and understand the functional and phylogenetic significance of these fundamental changes in postcranial axial skeletal anatomy in the hominoid fossil record is key to reconstructing ancestral hominoid patterns and retracing the evolutionary pathways that led to living apes and modern humans. Here, we provide an overview of what is known about evolution of the hominoid vertebral column, focusing on the currently available anatomical evidence of three major transitions: tail loss and adaptations to orthograde posture and bipedal locomotion.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/evan.21437","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,2,14]],"date-time":"2015-02-14T01:59:37Z","timestamp":1423879177000},"page":"15-32","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":99,"title":["Evolution of the hominoid vertebral column: The long and the short of it"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Scott A.","family":"Williams","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gabrielle A.","family":"Russo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,2,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_7_2_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Vertebral column and thorax","volume":"4","author":"Schultz AH","year":"1961","journal-title":"Primatologia"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhevol.2004.04.005"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0047-2484(91)90062-Z"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_5_1","unstructured":"RussoGA.2013.Functional morphology of mammalian sacra and caudal vertebrae: implications for tail loss and positional behaviors in extinct primates. PhD dissertation University of Texas at Austin."},{"key":"e_1_2_7_6_1","first-page":"311","volume-title":"The primate fossil record","author":"Harrison T","year":"2002"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12161"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_8_1","first-page":"223","volume-title":"Functional and evolutionary biology of primates","author":"Ankel F","year":"1972"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhevol.2011.03.006"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0047-2484(03)00092-7"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/evan.20208"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ar.23004"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_13_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Comparative biologic\u2010anatomical investigations on the vertebral column and spinal musculature of mammals","volume":"42","author":"Slijper EJ","year":"1946","journal-title":"Verh Kon Ned Akad Wet (Tweede Sectie)"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_14_1","volume-title":"Primate anatomy: an introduction","author":"Ankel\u2010Simons F","year":"2007"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.1330920306"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhevol.2006.08.008"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/jhev.1994.1012"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1103094"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhevol.2008.04.009"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_20_1","first-page":"311","article-title":"The lumbar vertebrae of the Middle Miocene stem great ape Pierolapithecus catalaunicus (Primates: Hominidae)","volume":"30","author":"Susanna I","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cidaris"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_21_1","first-page":"18","article-title":"The extent to which the posterior segments of the body have been transmuted and suppressed in the evolution of man and allied primates","volume":"37","author":"Keith A","year":"1903","journal-title":"J Anat Physiol"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jez.b.22"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.1330470204"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2907.1979.tb00252.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1005565304671"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4899-0075-3_9"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/evan.10133"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.1330470206"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4684-8854-8_12"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/jhev.1994.1008"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhevol.2006.04.012"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_32_1","first-page":"237","article-title":"Functional morphology of proximal caudal vertebrae in nonprehensile\u2010tailed primates","volume":"56","author":"Russo GA","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am J Phys Anthropol"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_33_1","first-page":"1","volume-title":"The Macaques: Studies in Ecology, Behavior, and Evolution","author":"Fooden J","year":"1980"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrg2320"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature07020"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0070-2153(09)88007-1"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ydbio.2010.04.024"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_38_1","volume-title":"Analysis of vertebrate structure","author":"Hildebrand M","year":"1995"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/gad.338705"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1232996"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_41_1","unstructured":"WilliamsSA.2011.Evolution of the hominoid vertebral column. PhD dissertation University of Illinois Urbana\u2010Champaign."},{"key":"e_1_2_7_42_1","first-page":"146","volume-title":"The lesser apes: evolutionary and behavioral biology","author":"Jungers WL","year":"1984"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_43_1","first-page":"201","volume-title":"The baboon in medical research, Vol II","author":"Benton RS","year":"1967"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_44_1","first-page":"121","volume-title":"Postcranial adaptation in nonhuman primates","author":"Shapiro L","year":"1993"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1175833"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jez.b.21316"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2010.0112"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.22642"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jezb.21451"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.1330740107"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/497573a"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_52_1","first-page":"266","volume-title":"The thoracic and lumbar vertebrae","author":"Latimer B","year":"1993"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/jhev.2002.0595"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.1330160405"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_55_1","first-page":"601","article-title":"The numbers of vertebrae in primates","volume":"89","author":"Schultz AH","year":"1945","journal-title":"Proc Am Philos Soc"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_56_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/217980a0"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_57_1","first-page":"3","article-title":"Kenyapithecus postcranial specimens from Nachola, Kenya","volume":"24","author":"Rose MD","year":"1996","journal-title":"Afr Stud Monogr"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_58_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/379156a0"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_59_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhevol.2014.05.009"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_60_1","first-page":"136","article-title":"Einige Beobachtungen und Ma\u00dfe am Skelett von Oreopithecus im Vergleich mit anderen catarrhinen Primaten","volume":"50","author":"Schultz AH","year":"1960","journal-title":"Z Morphol Anthropol"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_61_1","first-page":"146","volume-title":"Classification and human evolution","author":"Straus WL","year":"1963"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_62_1","first-page":"195","article-title":"Questions et r\u00e9flexions sur l'histoire des Anthropomorphes","volume":"54","author":"H\u00fcrzeler J","year":"1968","journal-title":"Ann Pal\u00e9ontol"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_63_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0047-2484(86)80073-2"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_64_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhevol.2013.05.004"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_65_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1175802"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_66_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.1330570403"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_67_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.1330570408"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_68_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhevol.2011.11.012"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_69_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1004527107"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_70_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature05047"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_71_1","unstructured":"BenadeMM.1990.Thoracic and lumbar vertebrae of African hominids ancient and recent: morphological and functional aspects with special reference to upright posture. Master's thesis University of the Witwatersrand."},{"key":"e_1_2_7_72_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/jhev.1997.0193"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_73_1","first-page":"215","article-title":"The third partial skeleton of a late Pliocene hominin (Stw 431) from Sterkfontein, South Africa","volume":"99","author":"Toussaint M","year":"2003","journal-title":"S Afr J Sci"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_74_1","volume-title":"Early hominid posture and locomotion","author":"Robinson J","year":"1972"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_75_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.22049"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_76_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/2251217a0"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_77_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.1330860402"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_78_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1590\/S0038-23532008000600015"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_79_1","first-page":"523","article-title":"Newly revealed information on the Sterkfontein Member 2 Australopithecus skeleton","volume":"98","author":"Clarke RJ","year":"2002","journal-title":"S Afr J Sci"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_80_1","first-page":"167","volume-title":"A partial skeleton of a gracile hominid from the Upper Burgi Member of the Koobi Fora Formation, East Lake Turkana, Kenya","author":"Leakey RE","year":"1989"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_81_1","unstructured":"MeyerMR.2005.Functional biology of theHomo erectusaxial skeleton from Dmanisi Georgia. PhD dissertation University of Pennsylvania."},{"key":"e_1_2_7_82_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhevol.2011.07.004"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_83_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-10382-1_7"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_84_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhevol.2012.01.007"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_85_1","first-page":"135","article-title":"Brachiation in New World monkeys and in anthropoid apes","volume":"10","author":"Erikson G","year":"1963","journal-title":"Symp Zool Soc Lond"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_86_1","first-page":"133","article-title":"The transition from thoracic to lumbar facet joint orientation at T11: functional implications of a more cranially positioned transitional vertebra in early hominids","volume":"58","author":"Haeusler M","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am J Phys Anthropol"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_87_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jmor.1050630105"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_88_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.21283"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_89_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.1330980306"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_90_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1376265"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_91_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajp.1350130307"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_92_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhevol.2012.05.011"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_93_1","first-page":"95","article-title":"The natural history of human gait and posture Part 1. Spine and pelvis","volume":"21","author":"Lovejoy CO","year":"2005","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_94_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.1.3246.451"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_95_1","first-page":"65","article-title":"Structural patterns in the Pongidae and Cercopithecidae","volume":"18","author":"Benton RS","year":"1974","journal-title":"Yearbk Phys Anthropol"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_96_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02438967"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_97_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1096-8644(199609)101:1<55::AID-AJPA5>3.0.CO;2-C"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_98_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-27800-6_34-3"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_99_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-10382-1_13"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_100_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1159\/000095683"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_101_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.1330240124"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_102_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0047-2484(75)90087-1"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_103_1","first-page":"585","article-title":"Studies on the evolution of the pelves of man and other primates","volume":"58","author":"Waterman HC","year":"1929","journal-title":"Am Mus Nat Hist Bull"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_104_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.1330260132"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_105_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/jhev.1993.1061"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_106_1","unstructured":"KelleyJJ.1986.Paleobiology of Miocene hominoids. Ph.D. dissertation Yale University."},{"key":"e_1_2_7_107_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1520-6505(1998)6:3<87::AID-EVAN3>3.0.CO;2-T"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_108_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2007.0750"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_109_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhevol.2009.02.008"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_110_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhevol.2003.09.001"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_111_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.crpv.2004.01.006"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_112_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1188545"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_113_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/evan.21417"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_114_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"WoodB HarrisonT.2011.The evolutionary context of the first hominins.470:347\u2013352.","DOI":"10.1038\/nature09709"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_115_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/evan.21312"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_116_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms3888"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_117_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1175834"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_118_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/01.brs.0000174273.85164.67"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_119_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature06342"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_120_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.21633"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_121_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.22507"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_122_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0047-2484(86)80052-5"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_123_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.1330720309"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_124_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/jhev.1995.1017"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_125_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhevol.2013.06.002"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_126_1","first-page":"339","article-title":"The upright posture of man: a review of its origin and evolution","volume":"67","author":"Gregory WK","year":"1928","journal-title":"Proc Am Philos Soc"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_127_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00586-009-1256-6"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_128_1","first-page":"93","article-title":"Transmission of weight through the lower thoracic and lumbar regions of the vertebral column in man","volume":"152","author":"Pal GP","year":"1987","journal-title":"J Anat"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_129_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/01.brs.0000257565.41856.0f"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_130_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.1330870404"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_131_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhevol.2005.04.001"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_132_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/evan.10056"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_133_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.10111"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_134_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.1330600302"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_135_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/evan.21409"}],"container-title":["Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.wiley.com\/onlinelibrary\/tdm\/v1\/articles\/10.1002%2Fevan.21437","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1002\/evan.21437","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,5]],"date-time":"2023-10-05T22:23:40Z","timestamp":1696544620000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1002\/evan.21437"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,1,2]]},"references-count":134,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2015,1,2]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1002\/evan.21437"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/evan.21437","archive":["Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["1060-1538","1520-6505"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1060-1538","type":"print"},{"value":"1520-6505","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2015,1,2]]}}}