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Glucose concentrations of \u2265550 \u03bcM efficiently protected the M\u00fcller cells from cell death by maintaining high ATP and glutathione and allowing only a moderate increase of free radicals. Fluorescence\u2010activated cell sorting (FACS) analysis showed that 22% of the cells underwent apoptosis whereas necrosis was strongly suppressed. Under glucose deprivation, the intracellular concentration of ATP declined to 15% after 1 h; glutathione dropped to 50% within 2 h after papanonoate addition. Both the number of cells containing excess free radicals and the mean concentration of free radicals increased twofold at 0.5\u20132 h of incubation with papanonoate. Cell death switched from prevailing apoptosis to massive necrosis and cell viability decreased drastically. Several metabolites of glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, and the pentose phosphate pathway were tested with respect to their capability to protect the stressed M\u00fcller cells. 2 mM pyruvate was found to enhance cell viability 1.6\u2010fold predominantly by reducing the necrotic cell demise. It could be shown that pyruvate did not act by improving the energy status of M\u00fcller cells but by scavenging excess free radicals. Inhibition of the monocarboxylate transporters in M\u00fcller cells by \u03b1\u2010cyano\u20104\u2010hydroxycinnamate abolished this effect. Other 2\u2010ketoacids, like oxalacetate, 2\u2010ketoglutarate and 2\u2010ketobutyrate had a similar protecting effect as pyruvate. Lactate, glutamate, 2\u2010deoxyglucose, and ribose 5\u2010phosphate did not protect M\u00fcller cells against oxidative and nitrosative stress. \u00a9 2005 Wiley\u2010Liss, Inc.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/glia.20244","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2005,7,6]],"date-time":"2005-07-06T22:53:56Z","timestamp":1120690436000},"page":"276-288","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":26,"title":["Pyruvate protects glucose\u2010deprived M\u00fcller cells from nitric oxide\u2010induced oxidative stress by radical scavenging"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"52","author":[{"given":"Jochen","family":"Frenzel","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jan","family":"Richter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Klaus","family":"Eschrich","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2005,7,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_7_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jnr.10648"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1910","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.130.4.1910","article-title":"Flow cytometric studies of oxidative product formation by neutrophils; a graded response to membrane stimulation","volume":"130","author":"Bass DA","year":"1983","journal-title":"J Immunol"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0306-4522(98)00427-8"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0306-4522(81)90151-2"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2741\/Bringman"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0005-2728(00)00238-3"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/bbrc.2001.4670"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1054-3589(08)60985-0"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/niox.1996.0113"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.17-23-09060.1997"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/carcin\/19.10.1715"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1024197915723"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/cne.901950210"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.19-02-00562.1999","article-title":"Synthesis of the anti\u2010oxidant glutathione in neurons: supply by astrocytes of CysGly as precursor for neuronal glutathione","volume":"19","author":"Dringen R","year":"1999","journal-title":"J Neurosci"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2003.08.018"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpregu.00080.2003"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2000.tb06188.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-4889(01)00169-0"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0306-4522(98)00699-X"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2337\/diabetes.47.7.1114"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-4835(90)90233-K"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1042\/bj2540359"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/1098-1136(200102)33:2<160::AID-GLIA1015>3.0.CO;2-4"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/379088a0"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_26_1","first-page":"740","article-title":"Isolation and characterization of porcine M\u00fcller cells. 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