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Previous studies detected both traces of motherhood decades after childbirth and adaptations in fathers. It is unclear which effects can be attributed to persisting traces of pregnancy and which are effects of parenthood. We investigated effects of past birth and of pregnancy loss in women, and effects of fatherhood in men, using univariate and machine learning analyses on 205 regional brain volumes. A group of mothers and an age\u2010matched sample of nulliparous women (\n                    <jats:italic>N<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u20094357 per group, mean age 63\u2009years) from the UK Biobank, with no past pregnancy losses, showed significant volumetric group differences in 14 regions at Bonferroni\u2010adjusted\n                    <jats:italic>\u03b1<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u20090.05. Likewise, we identified 18 significant group differences between age\u2010matched samples of fathers and non\u2010fathers of the same size (mean age 63.4), with 9 regions overlapping between sexes. Brain\u2010wide association statistics for past live birth in mothers and those for fatherhood correlated (\n                    <jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u20090.55). XGBoost machine learning models trained to classify parenthood status separately in both datasets showed performance that was low, but significantly above chance (10\u2010fold cross validation: AUC\u2009=\u20090.56,\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009&lt;\u20091e\u20105 Motherhood classifier, AUC\u2009=\u20090.54,\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009&lt;\u20091e\u20105, Fatherhood classifier, 10\u2009k permutations). We tested the motherhood classification model on an independent test sample comprising four age\u2010matched groups: 1. women who have never been pregnant, 2. women with past pregnancy loss but no live births, 3. women with live births but no pregnancy loss, and 4. women who experienced both. Class probability was significantly associated with live births, but not past loss. These findings may suggest that neuroanatomical patterns of past childbirth partly also reflect traces of parenthood and not solely persisting traces of past pregnancy, although a more detailed characterization of pregnancy loss data would be needed for full confirmation of this interpretation. Therefore, further research is needed to quantify the extent and understand the nature of these changes, particularly considering the known vulnerability for mental disorders associated with reproductive events.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.70527","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,13]],"date-time":"2026-04-13T03:20:40Z","timestamp":1776050440000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Traces of Parenthood but Not Pregnancy Loss in\n                    <scp>UK<\/scp>\n                    Biobank Structural Brain\n                    <scp>MRI<\/scp>\n                    Data"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"47","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0014-769X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jonas L.","family":"Fischer","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy University of T\u00fcbingen  T\u00fcbingen Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4935-7532","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alkistis","family":"Skalkidou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Women's and Children's Health\u2014Obstetric &amp; Reproductive Health Research Uppsala University  Uppsala Sweden"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0133-4486","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Birgit","family":"Derntl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy University of T\u00fcbingen  T\u00fcbingen Germany"},{"name":"German Center for Mental Health (DZPG), partner site T\u00fcbingen  T\u00fcbingen Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4003-1018","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tobias","family":"Kaufmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy University of T\u00fcbingen  T\u00fcbingen Germany"},{"name":"German Center for Mental Health (DZPG), partner site T\u00fcbingen  T\u00fcbingen Germany"},{"name":"Centre for Precision Psychiatry, Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Institute of Clinical Medicine University of Oslo  Oslo 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