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Using a unique dataset on 25 districts from Bengal, India, from 1911 to 1925, we analyze whether populations of consumers treat alcohol, cannabis, and opium as economic substitutes or complements in a legal regime. Additionally, we examine responsiveness to prices and income. Our analysis has three main findings. First, we find evidence of substitution between alcohol and cannabis bud. Second, cannabis leaf is a complement for alcohol but a substitute for cannabis bud. Third, we find negative income elasticity for alcohol, cannabis bud, and opium consumption. These findings on the link between consumption patterns and economic factors can guide harm reduction strategies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/hec.4938","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,18]],"date-time":"2025-01-18T06:50:41Z","timestamp":1737183041000},"page":"827-854","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Substitution and Complementarity in the Consumption of Alcohol, Cannabis, and Opium"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"34","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9243-556X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Siddharth","family":"Chandra","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Asian Studies Center and James Madison College Michigan State University  East Lansing Michigan USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7393-2760","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gaurav","family":"Doshi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Economics Georgia Institute of Technology  Atlanta Georgia USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_10_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0304\u20104076(94)01642\u2010d"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhealeco.2004.02.003"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph8114118"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1924938"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1360\u20100443.1999.9444793.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10198\u2010003\u20100197\u2010y"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00036840410001674295"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_9_1","first-page":"396","article-title":"Rational Addiction and the Effect of Price on Consumption","volume":"84","author":"Becker G. 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