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We therefore examine basal and provoked changes in peripheral cytokines in cocaine dependent individuals to better understand their role in the negative reinforcing effects of cocaine.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Twenty\u2010eight (16\u2009F\/12\u2009M) treatment\u2010seeking cocaine dependent individuals and 27 (14\u2009F\/13\u2009M) social drinkers were exposed to three 5\u2010min guided imagery conditions (stress, drug cue, relaxing) presented randomly across consecutive days. Measures of salivary cortisol, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF\u03b1), interleukin\u201010 (IL\u201010), and interleukin\u20101 receptor antagonist (IL\u20101ra) were collected at baseline and various post\u2010imagery time\u2010points.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Cocaine abusers demonstrated decreased basal IL\u201010 compared with social drinkers. They also showed significant elevations in pro\u2010inflammatory TNF\u03b1 when exposed to stress compared with when they were exposed to relaxing imagery. This was not observed in the social drinkers. Conversely, social drinkers demonstrated increases in the anti\u2010inflammatory markers, IL\u201010 and IL\u20101ra, following exposure to cue, which were not seen in the dependent individuals.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Cocaine dependent individuals demonstrate an elevated inflammatory state both at baseline and following exposure to the stress imagery condition. Cytokines may reflect potentially novel biomarkers in addicted populations for treatment development. 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