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Because dietary intake is a major route of PFOA exposure, and milk is a primary source of nutrition in early life, the present systematic review discusses PFOA occurrence in milk samples and the employed determination methods. In the present article, 69 studies (published 2007\u20132024) reporting PFOA levels in infant formula, commercial milk, and human breast milk were included. The highest concentration of PFOA in infant formula and commercial milk was reported from Spain (2490\u2009ng\/kg) and the highest level of PFOA in breast milk from Belgium (3.5\u2009ng\/mL). The most commonly used approaches for extraction and analysis of PFOA were solid\u2010phase extraction and LC\u2010MS\/MS, respectively. The evidence indicates the need for constant monitoring of PFOA levels in milk samples to safeguard vulnerable populations, especially neonates, infants, and children.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/jat.4932","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,18]],"date-time":"2025-09-18T04:32:53Z","timestamp":1758169973000},"page":"78-109","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Early\u2010Life Dietary Exposure to Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA) Through Milk Consumption: A Systematic Review"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"46","author":[{"given":"Hamid","family":"Ahmadpourmir","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Toxicology Research Center, Faculty of Medicine Mashhad University of Medical Sciences  Mashhad Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Seyedeh\u00a0Faezeh","family":"Taghizadeh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Applied Biomedical Research Center Mashhad University of Medical Sciences  Mashhad Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Konstantinos","family":"Tsarouhas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cardiology University Hospital of Larissa, Mezourlo  Larissa Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fatemeh","family":"Rakhshani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacodynamics and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy Zabol University of Medical Sciences  Zabol Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vida","family":"Ebrahimi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine Birjand University of Medical Sciences  Birjand Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aristidis","family":"Tsatsakis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Toxicology, Medical School University of Crete  Crete Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christina","family":"Tsitsimpikou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"General Chemical State Laboratory of Greece  Athens Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mahmoud","family":"Hashemzaei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacodynamics and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy Zabol University of Medical Sciences  Zabol Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7567-6142","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ramin","family":"Rezaee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Toxicology Research Center, Faculty of Medicine Mashhad University of Medical Sciences  Mashhad Iran"},{"name":"Applied Biomedical Research Center Mashhad University of Medical Sciences  Mashhad Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_10_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2019.125724"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2025.116389"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.microc.2024.110501"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/la500332s"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356\u2010015\u20104462\u20102"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/jaoac\/86.2.412"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2013.01.088"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kww213"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1039\/d0em00077a"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3109\/10408444.2014.952400"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2023.165286"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2014\u20108005"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2012.10.001"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.1306615"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10962247.2021.1909668"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/19440049.2020.1794053"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2022.115096"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp11292"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1039\/9781839167591-00001"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00244\u2010012\u20109754\u20107"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_22_1","unstructured":"Bokkers B. 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