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Current treatments fail to prevent poor prognoses, and while FDA\u2010approved therapies show promise in targeting dystrophin restoration, including RNA\u2010based approaches and microdystrophin gene therapy, clinical evidence supporting their efficacy remains limited. Substantial challenges persist, particularly in achieving effective cardiac targeting, ensuring long\u2010term safety and developing scalable treatments. Alternative therapies addressing muscle and cardiac pathophysiology are being explored alongside dystrophin\u2010based approaches. DMD treatment is increasingly focusing on heart targeting with optimized cardiac\u2010specific delivery strategies. Human\u2010induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) enable DMD modelling, bridging pathophysiology and clinical phenotypes. DMD patient\u2013specific hiPSC\u2010derived cardiomyocytes (hiPSC\u2010CMs) serve as in\u00a0vitro models for disease mechanisms and therapy, with 3D cardiac models, either self\u2010organizing (spheroids) or moulded, expanding on hiPSC\u2010CMs to reflect cell interactions and myocardial tissue architecture. Advanced methods like 2D cell sheets, patches and engineered 3D human cardiac models show potential for improving cell engraftment and functional recovery in injured hearts, but their direct therapeutic application in DMD remains speculative due to extensive muscle mass loss; the complexity of cardiac and skeletal muscle interactions; and unresolved challenges related to cell integration, maturation and long\u2010term function. Considering the premature state of cell\u2010based therapies in this complex disease, current DMD treatment efforts focus on genetic approaches. Progress will likely depend on combining dystrophin\u2010restoring strategies with therapies targeting disease mechanisms and improving cardiac delivery.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/jcsm.70180","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,7]],"date-time":"2026-01-07T12:20:08Z","timestamp":1767788408000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Current Trends in Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy Research and Therapy: 3D Cardiac Modelling"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Marta","family":"Przymusza\u0142a","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Biotechnology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology Jagiellonian University  Krak\u00f3w Poland"},{"name":"Doctoral School of Exact and Natural Sciences Jagiellonian University  Krakow 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