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One major route of exposure is recreating in marine waters, but knowledge is limited regarding the drivers of\n                    <jats:italic>S. aureus<\/jats:italic>\n                    in surface waters that discharge into marine environments. This study explores spatial and temporal distributions of\n                    <jats:italic>S. aureus<\/jats:italic>\n                    , including antimicrobial\u2010resistant and virulence genes, using both culture\u2010dependent and molecular techniques across a tropical Hawaiian watershed with a gradient of human influence. Negative binomial generalized linear mixed models revealed that the interaction between spatial and temporal factors was the strongest predictor of\n                    <jats:italic>S. aureus<\/jats:italic>\n                    and associated genes. Cultured\n                    <jats:italic>S. aureus<\/jats:italic>\n                    was highest at mid\u2010watershed sites in summer, which included a popular swimming hole, suggesting human shedding as a significant source. Molecular detection of\n                    <jats:italic>S. aureus<\/jats:italic>\n                    (\n                    <jats:italic>femA<\/jats:italic>\n                    gene) yielded concentrations two orders of magnitude higher than cultured concentrations and peaked at estuarine sites with the greatest nutrients and water residence times. In the winter at upstream sites with no public access, staphylococci antibiotic\u2010resistant (\n                    <jats:italic>mecA<\/jats:italic>\n                    ) and\n                    <jats:italic>S. aureus<\/jats:italic>\n                    virulence gene (\n                    <jats:italic>etb<\/jats:italic>\n                    ) were elevated, indicating highly pathogenic\n                    <jats:italic>S. aureus<\/jats:italic>\n                    strains in surface waters may originate from zoonotic sources. Our findings indicate that human and zoonotic sources contribute antibiotic\u2010resistant and virulent\n                    <jats:italic>S. aureus<\/jats:italic>\n                    to watersheds, with streams facilitating environmental transmission to marine waters. This watershed\u2010scale assessment enables the prediction of spatial and temporal conditions associated with elevated\n                    <jats:italic>S. aureus<\/jats:italic>\n                    concentrations, thereby reducing exposure and infections.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/jeq2.70248","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,29]],"date-time":"2026-08-29T03:16:56Z","timestamp":1787973416000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The spatial and temporal distribution of\n                    <i>Staphylococcus aureus<\/i>\n                    along a tropical Hawaiian watershed"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"55","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0919-4633","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria","family":"Steadmon","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oceanography University of Hawai\u02bbi at M\u0101noa  Honolulu Hawai\u02bbi USA"},{"name":"Pacific Biosciences Research Center University of Hawai\u02bbi at M\u0101noa, Kewalo Marine Lab  Honolulu Hawai\u02bbi USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Josh","family":"Buchanan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Osteopathic Medicine Rowan University  Stratford New Jersey USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria","family":"Petelo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pacific Biosciences Research Center University of Hawai\u02bbi at M\u0101noa, Kewalo Marine Lab  Honolulu Hawai\u02bbi USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0744-2018","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matthew C. 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