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Apoptotic cells release various extracellular vesicles (EVs), such as exosomes and microvesicles, and form apoptotic bodies through membrane blebbing. Despite growing interest in EVs, the effects of EVs derived from apoptotic cells versus those from live cell remain poorly understood.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    Here, via transmission electron microscopy, nanoparticle tracking analysis, proteomics, and flow cytometry, we characterise the distinct features of EVs from live versus apoptotic cells. Using a model of\n                    <jats:italic>Schistosoma mansoni<\/jats:italic>\n                    infection, characterised by the presence of dying cells due to parasite egg accumulation, we demonstrate that the injection of apoptotic T cell\u2010derived EVs attenuates hepatocyte damage, in contrast to EVs from live T cells.\n                  <\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>Analysis of the transcriptomic profile of target macrophages and functional assays revealed that apoptotic cell\u2010derived EVs activate nitric oxide\u2010related pathways, which modulate macrophage function. Furthermore, these EVs specifically promoted fibroblast\u2010mediated wound healing in vitro.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>Collectively, our findings highlight that cell fitness influences EV properties and their immune regulatory function. Investigating the differences between EVs from living and apoptotic cells is essential for advancing our understanding of immune regulation and optimising the development of EV\u2010based therapeutic strategies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/jex2.70115","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,19]],"date-time":"2026-02-19T15:07:22Z","timestamp":1771513642000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Extracellular Vesicle Properties and Functions Are Defined by the Originating Cell's Fitness Status"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"5","author":[{"given":"Stephanie","family":"Leyk","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"I. Department of Medicine University Medical Center Hamburg\u2010Eppendorf (UKE)  Hamburg Germany"},{"name":"Protozoa Immunology Bernhard\u2010Nocht\u2010Institute for Tropical Medicine (BNITM)  Hamburg Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Imke","family":"Liebold","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"I. Department of Medicine University Medical Center Hamburg\u2010Eppendorf (UKE)  Hamburg Germany"},{"name":"Protozoa Immunology Bernhard\u2010Nocht\u2010Institute for Tropical Medicine (BNITM)  Hamburg Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Clarissa","family":"Lanzloth","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"I. 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Department of Medicine University Medical Center Hamburg\u2010Eppendorf (UKE)  Hamburg Germany"},{"name":"Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Cell Biology University Medical Center Hamburg\u2010Eppendorf (UKE)  Hamburg Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Katharina","family":"H\u00f6hn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cellular Parasitology Department Bernhard\u2010Nocht\u2010Institute for Tropical Medicine (BNITM)  Hamburg Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Barbara","family":"Honecker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Infection Immunology Bernhard\u2010Nocht\u2010Institute for Tropical Medicine (BNITM)  Hamburg Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Helmut","family":"Haas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"<i>helminGuard<\/i>  S\u00fclfeld\/Borstel Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marius","family":"B\u00f6ttcher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"I. 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