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Among the ecological effects of ALAN, changes in reproductive timing are frequently reported, but the mechanisms underlying this relationship are still poorly understood. Here, we experimentally investigated these mechanisms by assessing dose\u2010dependent photoperiodic responses to ALAN in the great tit (<jats:italic>Parus major<\/jats:italic>). We individually exposed photosensitive male birds to one of three nocturnal light levels (0.5, 1.5, and 5 lux), or to a dark control. Subsequent histological and molecular analyses on their testes indicated a dose\u2010dependent reproductive response to ALAN. Specifically, different stages of gonadal growth were activated after exposure to different levels of light at night. mRNA transcript levels of genes linked to the development of germ cells (<jats:italic>stra8<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>spo11<\/jats:italic>) were increased under 0.5 lux compared to the dark control. The 0.5 and 1.5 lux groups showed slight increases in testis size and transcript levels associated with steroid synthesis (<jats:italic>lhr<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>hsd3b1<\/jats:italic>) and spermatogenesis (<jats:italic>fshr, wt1, sox9<\/jats:italic>, and <jats:italic>cldn11<\/jats:italic>), although spermatogenesis was not detected in histological analysis. In contrast, all birds under 5 lux had 10 to 30 times larger testes than birds in all other groups, with a parallel strong increase in mRNA transcript levels and clear signs of spermatogenesis. Across treatments, the volume of the testes was generally a good predictor of testicular transcript levels. Overall, our findings indicate that even small changes in nocturnal light intensity can increase, or decrease, effects on the reproductive physiology of wild organisms.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/jez.2214","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,30]],"date-time":"2018-07-30T04:18:29Z","timestamp":1532924309000},"page":"473-487","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":49,"title":["Dose\u2010response effects of light at night on the reproductive physiology of great tits (<i>Parus major<\/i>): Integrating morphological analyses with candidate gene expression"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"329","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2063-9955","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Davide M.","family":"Dominoni","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine University of Glasgow  Glasgow UK"},{"name":"Department of Animal Ecology Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO\u2010KNAW)  Wageningen The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0202-1115","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maaike","family":"de Jong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Animal Ecology Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO\u2010KNAW)  Wageningen The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michelle","family":"Bellingham","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine University of Glasgow  Glasgow UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter","family":"O'Shaughnessy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine University of Glasgow  Glasgow UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kees","family":"van Oers","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Animal Ecology Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO\u2010KNAW)  Wageningen The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jane","family":"Robinson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine University of Glasgow  Glasgow UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bethany","family":"Smith","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine University of Glasgow  Glasgow UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marcel E.","family":"Visser","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Animal Ecology Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO\u2010KNAW)  Wageningen The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Barbara","family":"Helm","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine University of Glasgow  Glasgow UK"},{"name":"GELIFES, Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences University of Groningen  Groningen The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_6_2_1","first-page":"721","article-title":"Differentiation of chicken gonad as an endocrine organ: Expression of LH receptor, FSH receptor, cytochrome P450c17 and aromatase genes","volume":"123","author":"Akazome Y.","year":"2002","journal-title":"Reproduction (Bristol, United Kingdom)"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_3_1","first-page":"553","article-title":"Expression of prostaglandin D synthetase during development in the mouse testis","volume":"122","author":"Baker P. 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