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It is through the entrainment of internal, endogenous rhythms of organisms to these external, exogenous rhythms in environment, such as cycling temperature and daylight, by which organisms can regulate and time life history transitions. Here, we review the current understanding of how photoperiod both stimulates and terminates seasonal reproduction in birds. The review describes the role of external coincidence timing, the process by which photoperiod is proposed to stimulate reproductive development. Then, the molecular basis of light detection and the photoperiodic regulation of neuroendocrine timing of seasonal reproduction in birds is presented. Current data indicates that vertebrate ancient opsin is the predominant photoreceptor for light detection by the hypothalamus, compared to neuropsin and rhodopsin. The review then connects light detection to well\u2010characterized hypothalamic and pituitary gland molecules involved in the photoperiodic regulation of reproduction. In birds, Gonadotropin\u2010releasing hormone synthesis and release are controlled by photoperiodic cues via thyrotropin\u2010stimulating hormone\u2010\u03b2 (TSH\u03b2) independent and dependent pathways, respectively. The review then highlights the role of D\u2010box and E\u2010box binding motifs in the promoter regions of photoperiodic genes, in particular Eyes\u2010absent 3, as the key link between circadian clock function and photoperiodic time measurement. Based on the available evidence, the review proposes that at least two molecular programs form the basis for external coincidence timing in birds: photoperiodic responsiveness by TSH\u03b2 pathways and endogenous internal timing by gonadotropin synthesis.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/jez.2604","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,10]],"date-time":"2022-05-10T08:15:25Z","timestamp":1652170525000},"page":"890-901","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":33,"title":["Photoperiodic regulation of avian physiology: From external coincidence to seasonal reproduction"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"337","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5551-5608","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Timothy Adam","family":"Liddle","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Seasonal Biology, Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine University of Glasgow  Glasgow 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