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However, <jats:italic>H. pylori<\/jats:italic> is now known to be an ancient bacterium, whereas there is persuasive evidence that the epidemic of duodenal ulceration began in the second half of the 19th century and continued into the second half of the 20th century. Possible explanations for the epidemic include genomic changes in the organism and environmental or other influences on the human host. While genomic changes resulted in the appearance of virulence factors, these seem likely to have appeared thousands of years ago with minimal effects on gastritis because of coexisting suppression of gastric immunity. In contrast, the emergence of duodenal ulceration is best explained by a change in the pattern of gastritis from inflammation involving the antrum and body in most individuals to a significant minority (10\u201320%) with antral gastritis but with relative sparing of the body of the stomach. In the latter group, the increase in serum gastrin (particularly G17) associated with antral gastritis had trophic effects on gastric parietal cells with an increase in the parietal cell mass and hypersecretion of gastric acid. Hypersecretion of acid is seen as the major risk factor for duodenal ulceration with significant contributions from environmental factors including smoking and use of nonsteroidal, anti\u2010inflammatory drugs. Host factors favoring changes in the pattern of gastritis include delayed acquisition of infection and improved nutrition; both with enhancing effects on mucosal immunity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/jgh3.12560","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,18]],"date-time":"2021-05-18T09:30:23Z","timestamp":1621330223000},"page":"636-642","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["How did the ancient bacterium, <i>Helicobacter pylori<\/i>, cause an epidemic of chronic duodenal ulceration?"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"5","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6075-3643","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ian C","family":"Roberts\u2010Thomson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences University of Adelaide  Adelaide South Australia Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_6_2_1","first-page":"124","article-title":"The expanding genus of Helicobacter: pathogenic and zoonotic potential","volume":"8","author":"Fox JG","year":"1997","journal-title":"Semin. 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