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This assessment provides an evaluation of black\u2010carbon climate forcing that is comprehensive in its inclusion of all known and relevant processes and that is quantitative in providing best estimates and uncertainties of the main forcing terms: direct solar absorption; influence on liquid, mixed phase, and ice clouds; and deposition on snow and ice. These effects are calculated with climate models, but when possible, they are evaluated with both microphysical measurements and field observations. Predominant sources are combustion related, namely, fossil fuels for transportation, solid fuels for industrial and residential uses, and open burning of biomass. Total global emissions of black carbon using bottom\u2010up inventory methods are 7500 Gg yr<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>in the year 2000 with an uncertainty range of 2000 to 29000. However, global atmospheric absorption attributable to black carbon is too low in many models and should be increased by a factor of almost 3. After this scaling, the best estimate for the industrial\u2010era (1750 to 2005) direct radiative forcing of atmospheric black carbon is +0.71 W m<jats:sup>\u22122<\/jats:sup>with 90% uncertainty bounds of (+0.08, +1.27) W m<jats:sup>\u22122<\/jats:sup>. Total direct forcing by all black carbon sources, without subtracting the preindustrial background, is estimated as +0.88 (+0.17, +1.48) W m<jats:sup>\u22122<\/jats:sup>. Direct radiative forcing alone does not capture important rapid adjustment mechanisms. A framework is described and used for quantifying climate forcings, including rapid adjustments. The best estimate of industrial\u2010era climate forcing of black carbon through all forcing mechanisms, including clouds and cryosphere forcing, is +1.1 W m<jats:sup>\u22122<\/jats:sup>with 90% uncertainty bounds of +0.17 to +2.1 W m<jats:sup>\u22122<\/jats:sup>. Thus, there is a very high probability that black carbon emissions, independent of co\u2010emitted species, have a positive forcing and warm the climate. We estimate that black carbon, with a total climate forcing of +1.1 W m<jats:sup>\u22122<\/jats:sup>, is the second most important human emission in terms of its climate forcing in the present\u2010day atmosphere; only carbon dioxide is estimated to have a greater forcing. Sources that emit black carbon also emit other short\u2010lived species that may either cool or warm climate. Climate forcings from co\u2010emitted species are estimated and used in the framework described herein. When the principal effects of short\u2010lived co\u2010emissions, including cooling agents such as sulfur dioxide, are included in net forcing, energy\u2010related sources (fossil fuel and biofuel) have an industrial\u2010era climate forcing of +0.22 (\u22120.50 to +1.08) W m<jats:sup>\u22122<\/jats:sup>during the first year after emission. For a few of these sources, such as diesel engines and possibly residential biofuels, warming is strong enough that eliminating all short\u2010lived emissions from these sources would reduce net climate forcing (i.e., produce cooling). When open burning emissions, which emit high levels of organic matter, are included in the total, the best estimate of net industrial\u2010era climate forcing by all short\u2010lived species from black\u2010carbon\u2010rich sources becomes slightly negative (\u22120.06 W m<jats:sup>\u22122<\/jats:sup>with 90% uncertainty bounds of \u22121.45 to +1.29 W m<jats:sup>\u22122<\/jats:sup>). The uncertainties in net climate forcing from black\u2010carbon\u2010rich sources are substantial, largely due to lack of knowledge about cloud interactions with both black carbon and co\u2010emitted organic carbon. In prioritizing potential black\u2010carbon mitigation actions, non\u2010science factors, such as technical feasibility, costs, policy design, and implementation feasibility play important roles. The major sources of black carbon are presently in different stages with regard to the feasibility for near\u2010term mitigation. This assessment, by evaluating the large number and complexity of the associated physical and radiative processes in black\u2010carbon climate forcing, sets a baseline from which to improve future climate forcing estimates.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/jgrd.50171","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,4,22]],"date-time":"2013-04-22T10:25:17Z","timestamp":1366626317000},"page":"5380-5552","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5248,"title":["Bounding the role of black carbon in the climate system: A scientific assessment"],"prefix":"10.1029","volume":"118","author":[{"given":"T. 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