{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T13:36:11Z","timestamp":1791380171122,"version":"4.3.3"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2010,8,26]],"date-time":"2010-08-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1282780800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Journal of Morphology"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2010,11]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>Morphological specialization is a complex interplay of adaptation and constraint, as similarly specialized features often evolve convergently in unrelated species, indicating that there are universally adaptive aspects to these morphologies. The evolutionary history of carnivores offers outstanding examples of convergent specialization. Among larger predators, borophagine canids were highly abundant during the tertiary of North America and are regarded as the ecological vicars of Afro\u2010Eurasian hyenas. Borophaginae is an extinct group of 60+ species, the largest forms evolving robust skulls with prominently domed foreheads, short snouts, and hypertrophied fourth premolars. These specializations have been speculated to enhance bone cracking. To test the extent that the skulls of derived borophagines were adapted for producing large bite forces and withstanding the mechanical stresses associated with bone cracking relative to their nonrobust sister clades, we manipulated muscle forces in models of six canid skulls and analyzed their mechanical response using 3D finite element analysis. Performance measures of bite force production efficiency and deformation minimization showed that skulls of derived borophagines <jats:italic>Borophagus secundus<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>Epicyon haydeni<\/jats:italic> are particularly strong in the frontal region; maximum stresses are lower and more evenly distributed over the skull than in other canids. Frontal strength is potentially coupled with a temporalis\u2010driven bite to minimize cranial stress during biting in the two derived genera, as tensile stress incurred by contracting temporalis muscles is dissipated rostro\u2010ventrally across the forehead and face. Comparison of estimated masticatory muscle cross section areas suggests that the temporalis\u2010masseter ratio is not strongly associated with morphological adaptations for bone cracking in <jats:italic>Borophagus<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>Epicyon<\/jats:italic>; larger body size may explain relatively larger temporalis muscles in the latter. When compared with previous studies, the overall cranial mechanics of the derived borophagines is more similar to bone\u2010cracking hyaenids and percrocutids than to their canid relatives, indicating convergence in both morphological form and functional capability. J. Morphol., 2010. \u00a9 2010 Wiley\u2010Liss, Inc.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/jmor.10881","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2010,8,30]],"date-time":"2010-08-30T17:55:23Z","timestamp":1283190923000},"page":"1386-1398","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":61,"title":["Cranial functional morphology of fossil dogs and adaptation for durophagy in <i>Borophagus<\/i> and <i>Epicyon<\/i> (Carnivora, Mammalia)"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"271","author":[{"given":"Zhijie 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