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Whereas in vivo measures of biting performance are difficult to obtain in many taxa\u2014and impossible in extinct species\u2014numerous osteological proxies exist for estimating masticatory muscle size and force. These proxies include both volumetric approximations of muscle dimensions and direct measurements of muscular attachment sites. In this study, we compare three cranial osteological techniques for estimating muscle size (including 2D\u2010photographic and 3D\u2010surface data approaches) against dissection\u2010derived muscle weights and physiological cross\u2010sectional area (PCSA) within the jaw adductor musculature of 40 carnivoran taxa spanning eight families, four orders of magnitude in body size, and the full dietary spectrum of the order. Our results indicate that 3D\u2010approaches provide more accurate estimates of muscle size than do surfaces measured from 2D\u2010lateral photographs. However, estimates of a muscle's maximum cross\u2010sectional area are more closely correlated with muscle mass and PCSA than any estimates derived from muscle attachment areas. These findings highlight the importance of accounting for muscle thickness in osteological estimations of the masticatory musculature; as muscles become volumetrically larger, their larger cross\u2010sectional area does not appear to be associated with a proportional increase in the attachment site area. Though volumetric approaches approximate muscle dimensions well across the order as a whole, caution should be exercised when applying any single method as a predictor across diverse phylogenies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/jmor.21400","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,27]],"date-time":"2021-07-27T06:22:26Z","timestamp":1627366946000},"page":"1499-1513","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Evaluating bony predictors of bite force across the order\n                    <scp>Carnivora<\/scp>"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"282","author":[{"given":"Edwin","family":"Dickinson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences North Carolina State University  Raleigh North Carolina USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jillian S.","family":"Davis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pathology, Anatomy, and Laboratory Medicine Department West Virginia University School of Medicine  Morgantown West Virginia USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ashley R.","family":"Deutsch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences North Carolina State University  Raleigh North Carolina USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dhuru","family":"Patel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences North Carolina State University  Raleigh North Carolina USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Akash","family":"Nijhawan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences North Carolina State University  Raleigh North Carolina USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Meet","family":"Patel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences North Carolina State University  Raleigh North Carolina USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abby","family":"Blume","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences North Carolina State University  Raleigh North Carolina USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jordan L.","family":"Gannon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biology Department High Point University  High Point North Carolina USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cassandra M.","family":"Turcotte","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology New York University  New York New York USA"},{"name":"New York Consortium in Evolutionary Primatology  New York New York USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christopher S.","family":"Walker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Biomedical Sciences North Carolina State University  Raleigh North Carolina USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5307-5573","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adam","family":"Hartstone\u2010Rose","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences North Carolina State University  Raleigh North Carolina USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_9_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2002.2011"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_3_1","unstructured":"Ant\u00f3nSC.1994.Masticatory muscle architecture and bone morphology in primates. 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