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Often, we must weigh the risks of different options and decide whether an option is worth the risk or whether we should choose a safer option. The ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) is suggested as a major hub for basic but also higher\u2010order reward processing. Dysfunction in this region has been linked to cognitive risk factors for depression and behavioral addictions, including reduced optimism and feedback learning. Here, we test whether modulations of vmPFC excitability via noninvasive transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) can alter reward anticipation and reward processing. In a financial gambling task, participants chose between a higher and a lower monetary risk option and eventually received feedback whether they won or lost. Simultaneously feedback on the unchosen option was presented as well. Behavioral and magnetoencephalographic correlates of reward processing were evaluated in direct succession of either excitatory or inhibitory tDCS of the vmPFC. We were able to show modulated reward approach behavior (expectancy of greater reward magnitudes) as well as altered reevaluation of received feedback by vmPFC tDCS as indicated by modified choice behavior following the feedback. Thereby, tDCS not only influenced early, rather basic reward processing, but it also modulated higher\u2010order comparative feedback evaluation of gains and losses relative to alternative outcomes. The neural results underline this idea, as stimulation\u2010driven modulations of the basic reward\u2010related effect occurred at rather early time intervals and were followed by stimulation effects related to comparative reward processing. Importantly, behavioral ratings were correlated with neural activity in left frontal areas. Our results imply a dual function of the vmPFC consisting of approaching reward (as indicated by more risky choices) and elaborately evaluating outcomes. In addition, our data suggest that vmPFC activity is associated with adaptive decision\u2010making in the future via modulated behavioral adaptation or reinforcement learning.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/jnr.25248","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,12]],"date-time":"2023-10-12T03:36:40Z","timestamp":1697081800000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Higher\u2010order comparative reward processing is affected by noninvasive stimulation of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"102","author":[{"given":"Thomas","family":"Kroker","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Biomagnetism and Biosignalanalysis University of Muenster  Muenster Germany"},{"name":"Otto Creutzfeldt Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience University of Muenster  Muenster Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maimu Alissa","family":"Rehbein","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Biomagnetism and Biosignalanalysis University of Muenster  Muenster Germany"},{"name":"Otto Creutzfeldt Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience University of Muenster  Muenster Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Miroslaw","family":"Wyczesany","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Philosophy Jagiellonian University  Krakow Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8128-0520","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jens","family":"B\u00f6lte","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Otto Creutzfeldt Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience University of Muenster  Muenster Germany"},{"name":"Institute of Psychology University of Muenster  Muenster Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kati","family":"Roesmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Otto Creutzfeldt Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience University of Muenster  Muenster Germany"},{"name":"Institute for Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy University of Siegen  Siegen Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8248-6814","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ida","family":"Wessing","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Otto Creutzfeldt Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience University of Muenster  Muenster Germany"},{"name":"Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry University Hospital Muenster  Muenster Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Markus","family":"Jungh\u00f6fer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Biomagnetism and Biosignalanalysis University of Muenster  Muenster Germany"},{"name":"Otto Creutzfeldt Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience University of Muenster  Muenster Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_12_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/s13415\u2010019\u201000688\u20101"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jml.2007.12.005"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-398335-0.00035-2"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_5_1","volume-title":"BDI\u2010II","author":"Beck A. 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