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To address this issue, engineered nanoparticles\/nano\u2010formulations of antibiotics have emerged as a promising strategy. Nanoparticles are typically defined as materials with dimensions up to 100\u00a0nm and are made of different materials such as inorganic particles, lipids, polymers, etc. They are widely dispersed in the environment through various consumer products, and their clinical applications are diverse, ranging from contrast agents in imaging to carriers for gene and drug delivery. Nanoparticles can also act as antimicrobial agents either on their own or in combination with traditional antibiotics to produce synergistic effects, earning them the label of \u201cnext\u2010generation therapeutics.\u201d They have also shown great effectiveness against multidrug\u2010resistant pathogens responsible for nosocomial infections. However, overexposure or prolonged exposure to sublethal doses of nanoparticles can promote the development of resistance in human pathogens. The resistance can arise from various factors such as genetic mutation, horizontal gene transfer, production of reactive oxygen species, changes in the outer membrane of bacteria, efflux\u2010induced resistance, cross\u2010resistance from intrinsic antibiotic resistance determinants, plasmid\u2010mediated resistance, and many more. Continuous exposure to nanoparticles can also transform an antibiotic\u2010susceptible bacterial pathogen into multidrug resistance. Considering all these, the current review focuses on the mode of action of different heavy metals and nanoparticles and possible mechanisms through which bacteria attain resistance towards these heavy metals and nanoparticles.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/jobm.202400596","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,19]],"date-time":"2024-12-19T02:26:39Z","timestamp":1734575199000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Understanding Bacterial Resistance to Heavy Metals and Nanoparticles: Mechanisms, Implications, and Challenges"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"65","author":[{"given":"Chaitra","family":"Prabhu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbial Genomics NITTE (Deemed to be University), NITTE University Centre for Science Education and Research Paneer Campus, Deralakatte Mangaluru 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