{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,22]],"date-time":"2026-04-22T04:08:31Z","timestamp":1776830911985,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":23,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,15]],"date-time":"2022-02-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1644883200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Journal of Traumatic Stress"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,6]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>Few studies have described the broader experience of survivors of female genital mutilation or cutting (FGM\/C) who have sought asylum in the United States. To gain a better understanding of their exposure to gender\u2010based violence (GBV), the study was conducted to help uncover themes and patterns of co\u2010occurring individual and community factors among women asylum seekers who experienced FGM\/C before they arrived in the United States. Following a retrospective chart review of FGM\/C cases seen in a human rights clinic, 35 women met the inclusion criteria. The constant comparative method (CCM) was used to develop themes derived from clients\u2019 personal declarations and physicians\u2019 affidavits. A qualitative analysis revealed extensive histories of violence\u2014physical, psychological, and sexual\u2014demonstrating that FGM\/C is only part of a larger arc of violence. Key themes developed via CCM include the experience of FGM\/C, cultural attitudes toward FGM\/C, cultural attitudes toward women, the lack of agency felt by women, silence around experiences of GBV and the constant reinforcement of that silence, the role of education in women's lives, and acts of resistance and social support. Placing FGM\/C within its cultural context allows for a better understanding of its role in society's broader subjugation of women and elucidates how these social structures are maintained. For health care and other service providers, the high frequency of multiple forms of violence and the ingrained nature of women's oppression indicate the need for trauma\u2010informed care and services as well as accessible resources beyond those explicitly related to FGM\/C.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/jts.22791","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,16]],"date-time":"2022-02-16T04:12:23Z","timestamp":1644984743000},"page":"839-851","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Histories of pervasive gender\u2010based violence in asylum\u2010seeking women who have undergone female genital mutilation or cutting"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"35","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8795-0628","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hazel","family":"Lever","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine Massachusetts General Hospital  Boston Massachusetts USA"},{"name":"Mount Sinai Human Rights Program Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai  New York New York USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kim A.","family":"Baranowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mount Sinai Human Rights Program Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai  New York New York USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Deborah","family":"Ottenheimer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mount Sinai Human Rights Program Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai  New York New York USA"},{"name":"Harlem United\/The Nest Community Health Center  New York New York USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Holly G.","family":"Atkinson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Education City University of New York School of Medicine  New York New York USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Elizabeth K.","family":"Singer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mount Sinai Human Rights Program Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai  New York New York USA"},{"name":"Departments of Emergency Medicine and Medical Education Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai  New York New York USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_7_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10903\u2010016\u20100419\u2010x"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/jfn.0000000000000090"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/496564"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijgo.2007.03.008"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/30032454"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1077801298004003002"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7748\/ns2001.07.15.42.39.c3052"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10903\u2010018\u20100782\u2010x"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/JFN.0000000000000090"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s0140\u20106736(00)02453\u20103"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/3583136"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1471\u20102458\u201012\u2010926"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_14_1","unstructured":"UNICEF. (2016).Female genital mutilation\/cutting: A global concern.https:\/\/www.unicef.org\/media\/files\/FGMC_2016_brochure_final_UNICEF_SPREAD.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_15_1","unstructured":"United Nations. (2018).The sustainable development goals report.https:\/\/unstats.un.org\/sdgs\/files\/report\/2018\/TheSustainableDevelopmentGoalsReport2018\u2010EN.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_16_1","unstructured":"United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women. (1992).CEDAW general recommendations nos. 19 and 20 adopted at the eleventh session 1992 (contained in Document A\/47\/38).https:\/\/www.refworld.org\/docid\/453882a422.html"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_17_1","unstructured":"United Nations General Assembly. (1951). Convention relating to the status of refugees.https:\/\/www.refworld.org\/docid\/3be01b964.html"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_18_1","unstructured":"United Nations Women. (2017).Training manual on gender and female genital mutilation\/cutting.https:\/\/portal.trainingcentre.unwomen.org\/resource\u2010centre\/entry\/46994\/"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_19_1","unstructured":"U.S. Department of Justice Department of the Attorney General. (2018).Matter of A\u2010B\u2010 Respondent 27 I&N Dec. 316 (A.G 2018) slip op. at 316 (Attorney General Jeff Sessions June 11 2018).https:\/\/www.justice.gov\/eoir\/page\/file\/1070866\/download"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_20_1","unstructured":"U. S. Department of Justice Executive Office for Immigration Review. (2014).Matter of W\u2010G\u2010R\u2010 Respondent 26 I&N Dec. 208 (BIA 2014).https:\/\/www.justice.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/eoir\/legacy\/2014\/07\/25\/3794.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_21_1","unstructured":"Veen S. Verkade A. Ukwuagau C. &Muthoni M.(2018).Breaking a culture of silence: Social norms that perpetuate violence against women and girls in Nigeria.https:\/\/oxfamilibrary.openrepository.com\/bitstream\/handle\/10546\/621299\/rg\u2010measuring\u2010social\u2010norms\u2010unpaid\u2010care\u2010121021\u2010en.pdf?sequence=1"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/2F1359104505051210"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10903\u2010020\u201000994\u20108"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_24_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization. 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