{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]],"date-time":"2026-09-15T19:16:04Z","timestamp":1789499764420,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"Wiley","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]],"date-time":"2026-09-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789430400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]],"date-time":"2026-09-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789430400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/doi.wiley.com\/10.1002\/tdm_license_1.1"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Macromol. Rapid Commun."],"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    Soft robotic systems require actuators that combine large deformation, mechanical robustness, and reliable operation under practical conditions. Twisted and coiled polymer (TCP) artificial muscles, typically fabricated from fibrous materials, offer high power density and large stroke; however, their reliance on elevated operating temperatures (&gt;80\u00b0C) for high performance limits their use in temperature\u2010sensitive environments. Here, we report a thermoresponsive gel\u2010yarn composite actuator that enables actuation at reduced temperatures within TCP\u2010based systems. Twisted polyester yarns were functionalized with a biocompatible thermosensitive hydrogel, poly(MAA\u2010co\u2010OEGMA), forming a fiber\u2010gel composite architecture. Temperature\u2010induced swelling and deswelling of the hydrogel in cold and hot water, respectively, generated internal stresses within the yarn, which drive untwisting of the coiled structure and result in lengthwise actuation. The effect of ionic crosslinking was systematically investigated by varying FeCl\n                    <jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>\n                    concentration, with 1\u00a0M identified as the optimal condition balancing structural stiffness and actuation performance. The composite actuators exhibit isotonic free strains of up to 39% when cycled between room temperature and 50\u00b0C and work densities of up to 8.8 \u00d7 10\n                    <jats:sup>\u2212<\/jats:sup>\n                    <jats:sup>3<\/jats:sup>\n                    J g\n                    <jats:sup>\u2212<\/jats:sup>\n                    <jats:sup>1<\/jats:sup>\n                    , with reversible and repeatable actuation behavior. Compared to conventional TCP systems, which typically operate at substantially higher temperatures, the present system achieves similar deformation but within a lower and more practical thermal range. These findings suggest that fiber\u2010gel composite architectures provide a viable route for tuning actuation behavior in TCP systems while maintaining compatibility with temperature\u2010sensitive applications.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/marc.70432","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]],"date-time":"2026-09-15T18:57:07Z","timestamp":1789498627000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Thermoresponsive Gel\u2010Yarn Composites Enable Low\u2010Temperature Tensile Actuation in Twisted and Coiled Polymer Artificial Muscles"],"prefix":"10.1002","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4697-6418","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sinmisola","family":"Aloko","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering University of New South Wales  Sydney Australia"},{"name":"School of Biomedical Engineering University of Wollongong  Wollongong New South Wales Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4656-9473","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Geoffrey","family":"Spinks","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biomedical Engineering University of Wollongong  Wollongong New South Wales Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1979-5213","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Javad","family":"Foroughi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering University of New South Wales  Sydney Australia"},{"name":"School of Biomedical Engineering University of Wollongong  Wollongong New South Wales Australia"},{"name":"Department of Cardiothoracic Transplantation, and Vascular Surgery Hannover Medical School  Hannover Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_10_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibtech.2013.03.002","article-title":"Soft Robotics: A Bioinspired Evolution in Robotics","volume":"31","author":"Kim S.","year":"2013","journal-title":"Trends in Biotechnology"},{"issue":"18","key":"e_1_2_10_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2909","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201305708","article-title":"Moisture\u2010Activated Torsional Graphene\u2010Fiber Motor","volume":"26","author":"Cheng H.","year":"2014","journal-title":"Advanced Materials"},{"issue":"53","key":"e_1_2_10_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.abf4788","article-title":"Dual High\u2010Stroke and High\u2013Work Capacity Artificial Muscles Inspired by DNA Supercoiling","volume":"6","author":"Spinks G. M.","year":"2021","journal-title":"Science Robotics"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_2_10_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1002\/smb2.12005","article-title":"Recent Advances in Twisted and Coiled Artificial Muscles and Their Applications","volume":"1","author":"Sun J.","year":"2025","journal-title":"SmartBot"},{"issue":"4","key":"e_1_2_10_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1092","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matt.2022.02.018","article-title":"Coiled Polymer Fibers for Artificial Muscle and More Applications","volume":"5","author":"Zhu Z.","year":"2022","journal-title":"Matter"},{"issue":"43","key":"e_1_2_10_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9491","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201603395","article-title":"An Elastic Transparent Conductor Based on Hierarchically Wrinkled Reduced Graphene Oxide for Artificial Muscles and Sensors","volume":"28","author":"Mu J.","year":"2016","journal-title":"Advanced Materials"},{"issue":"7709","key":"e_1_2_10_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-018-0185-0","article-title":"Printing Ferromagnetic Domains for Untethered Fast\u2010Transforming Soft Materials","volume":"558","author":"Kim Y.","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"19","key":"e_1_2_10_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7503","DOI":"10.1021\/la0001575","article-title":"Change in Hydration State During the Coil\u2212Globule Transition of Aqueous Solutions of Poly(N\u2010isopropylacrylamide) as Evidenced by FTIR Spectroscopy","volume":"16","author":"Maeda Y.","year":"2000","journal-title":"Langmuir"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2012.09.012","article-title":"Thermosensitive Sol\u2013Gel Reversible Hydrogels","volume":"64","author":"Jeong B.","year":"2012","journal-title":"Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews"},{"issue":"18","key":"e_1_2_10_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6723","DOI":"10.1016\/S0032-3861(00)00008-2","article-title":"Investigation of a Stimuli\u2010Responsive Copolymer by Atomic Force Microscopy","volume":"41","author":"Zareie H. M.","year":"2000","journal-title":"Polymer"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_2_10_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1002\/polb.24430","article-title":"Thermal Actuation of Hydrogels From PNIPAm, Alginate, and Carbon Nanofibres","volume":"56","author":"Warren H.","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Polymer Science Part B: Polymer Physics"},{"issue":"5","key":"e_1_2_10_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3398","DOI":"10.1021\/am508621s","article-title":"Self\u2010Folding Thermo\u2010Magnetically Responsive Soft Microgrippers","volume":"7","author":"Breger J. C.","year":"2015","journal-title":"ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_2_10_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2315","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-04810-8","article-title":"Thermo\u2010Responsive Gels that Absorb Moisture and Ooze Water","volume":"9","author":"Matsumoto K.","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature Communications"},{"issue":"3","key":"e_1_2_10_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1021\/accountsmr.5c00007","article-title":"Thermoresponsive Hydrogels for the Construction of Smart Windows, Sensors, and Actuators","volume":"6","author":"Ryu K.","year":"2025","journal-title":"Accounts of Materials Research"},{"issue":"10","key":"e_1_2_10_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1002","DOI":"10.1038\/nmat4363","article-title":"Thermoresponsive Actuation Enabled by Permittivity Switching in an Electrostatically Anisotropic Hydrogel","volume":"14","author":"Kim Y. S.","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature Materials"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.30919\/es8d788"},{"issue":"3","key":"e_1_2_10_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.3390\/biomimetics3030015","article-title":"Hydrogel Actuators and Sensors for Biomedical Soft Robots: Brief Overview With Impending Challenges","volume":"3","author":"Banerjee H.","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biomimetics"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_2_10_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms12028","article-title":"Skin\u2010Inspired Hydrogel\u2013Elastomer Hybrids With Robust Interfaces and Functional Microstructures","volume":"7","author":"Yuk H.","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature Communications"},{"issue":"10","key":"e_1_2_10_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2115","DOI":"10.1039\/b921150k","article-title":"Thermoresponsive oligo(ethylene glycol)\u2010Methacrylate\u2010 Based Polymers and Microgels","volume":"6","author":"Hu Z.","year":"2010","journal-title":"Soft Matter"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.progpolymsci.2015.03.001","article-title":"Conformation\u2013Function Relationships for the Comb\u2010Shaped Polymer pOEGMA","volume":"48","author":"Liu M.","year":"2015","journal-title":"Progress in Polymer Science"},{"issue":"19","key":"e_1_2_10_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7818","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemmater.1c02312","article-title":"Strong, Ultrafast, Reprogrammable Hydrogel Actuators with Muscle\u2010Mimetic Aligned Fibrous Structures","volume":"33","author":"Jiang Z.","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chemistry of Materials"},{"issue":"6590","key":"e_1_2_10_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abo4603","article-title":"Strong and Fast Hydrogel Actuators","volume":"376","author":"Jiang Z.","year":"2022","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2019.03.012","article-title":"Using Force\u2010Displacement Relations to Obtain Actuation Parameters From Artificial Muscles","volume":"290","author":"Spinks G. M.","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sensors and Actuators A: Physical"},{"issue":"48","key":"e_1_2_10_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201904956","article-title":"Tough, Self\u2010Healing Hydrogels Capable of Ultrafast Shape Changing","volume":"31","author":"Jiang Z.","year":"2019","journal-title":"Advanced Materials"},{"issue":"47","key":"e_1_2_10_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7141","DOI":"10.1039\/D3CC01545A","article-title":"Designing Strong, Fast, High\u2010Performance Hydrogel Actuators","volume":"59","author":"Abbasi B. A.","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chemical Communications"},{"issue":"6590","key":"e_1_2_10_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abm7862","article-title":"Hydrogel\u2010Based Strong and Fast Actuators by Electroosmotic Turgor Pressure","volume":"376","author":"Na H.","year":"2022","journal-title":"Science"},{"issue":"35","key":"e_1_2_10_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8504","DOI":"10.1039\/c3sm51617b","article-title":"Force and Stroke of a Hydrogel Actuator","volume":"9","author":"Illeperuma W. R. K.","year":"2013","journal-title":"Soft Matter"},{"issue":"2","key":"e_1_2_10_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2004.10.010","article-title":"Work\u2010Per\u2010Cycle Analysis for Electromechanical Actuators","volume":"119","author":"Spinks G. M.","year":"2005","journal-title":"Sensors and Actuators A: Physical"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21249656"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/gels8090568"},{"issue":"6173","key":"e_1_2_10_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"868","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1246906","article-title":"Artificial Muscles from Fishing Line and Sewing Thread","volume":"343","author":"Haines C. S.","year":"2014","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1002\/aisy.202400334","article-title":"Coil Formation and Biomimetic Performance Characterization of Twisted Coiled Polymer Artificial Muscles","volume":"7","author":"Witham N.","year":"2024","journal-title":"Advanced Intelligent Systems"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_2_10_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3384","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-025-58731-4","article-title":"Temperature\u2010Triggered Inflatable Hydrogel Muscles with Snap\u2010Through Instability for Untethered Robots","volume":"16","author":"Cui Y.","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nature Communications"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_2_10_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1038\/s41378-025-00884-9","article-title":"Sensing\u2010Actuating Integrated Asymmetric Multilayer Hydrogel Muscle for Soft Robotics","volume":"11","author":"Zhou Y.","year":"2025","journal-title":"Microsystems & Nanoengineering"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2024.116041","article-title":"High Cycle Performance of Twisted and Coiled Polymer Actuators","volume":"381","author":"Tsai S.","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sensors and Actuators A: Physical"}],"container-title":["Macromolecular Rapid Communications"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1002\/marc.70432","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1002\/marc.70432","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1002\/marc.70432","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]],"date-time":"2026-09-15T18:57:12Z","timestamp":1789498632000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1002\/marc.70432"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]]},"references-count":35,"alternative-id":["10.1002\/marc.70432"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/marc.70432","archive":["Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["1022-1336","1521-3927"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1022-1336","type":"print"},{"value":"1521-3927","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2026-05-27","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2026-09-09","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2026-09-15","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}],"article-number":"e70432"}}