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This emphasizes the need to identify modifiable risk factors of PD, which could form a logical entry point for the prevention of PD. The World Health Organization (WHO) has recommended reducing exposure to specific environmental factors that have been reported to be associated with PD, in particular pesticides, trichloroethylene (TCE), and air pollution. In this review we critically evaluate the epidemiological and biological evidence on the associations of these factors with PD and review evidence on whether these putative associations are causal. We conclude that when considered in isolation, it is difficult to determine whether these associations are causal, in large part because of the decades\u2010long lag between relevant exposures and the incidence of manifest PD. However, when considered in tandem with evidence from complementary research lines (such as animal models), it is increasingly likely that these associations reflect harmful causal effects. Fundamentally, whilst we highlight some evidence gaps that require further attention, we believe the current evidence base is sufficiently strong enough to support our call for stronger policy action. \u00a9 2024 The Author(s).\n                    <jats:italic>Movement Disorders<\/jats:italic>\n                    published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.30067","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,27]],"date-time":"2024-11-27T08:35:11Z","timestamp":1732696511000},"page":"204-221","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":71,"title":["Environmental Risk Factors for Parkinson's Disease: A Critical Review and Policy Implications"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"40","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4832-922X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kajsa","family":"Atterling Brolin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Translational Neurogenetics Unit, Department of Experimental Medical Science Lund University  Lund Sweden"},{"name":"Centre for Preventive Neurology, Wolfson Institute of Population Health Queen Mary University of London  London UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0792-4383","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eva","family":"Schaeffer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, University Hospital Schleswig\u2010Holstein Campus Kiel and Kiel University  Kiel Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ashvin","family":"Kuri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Preventive Neurology, Wolfson Institute of Population Health Queen Mary University of London  London UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Isabell Katharina","family":"Rumrich","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmacy University of Eastern Finland  Finland"},{"name":"Department of Health Protection Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare  Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8722-0908","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Artur Francisco","family":"Schumacher Schuh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Farmacologia Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul  Porto Alegre Brazil"},{"name":"Servi\u00e7o de Neurologia Hospital de Cl\u00ednicas de Porto Alegre  Porto Alegre Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4361-4593","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sirwan K.L.","family":"Darweesh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Radboud University Medical Center Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Department of Neurology, Center of Expertise for Parkinson &amp; Movement Disorders  Nijmegen The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3446-7093","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Valtteri","family":"Kaasinen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Neurosciences University of Turku  Turku Finland"},{"name":"Neurocenter Turku University Hospital  Turku Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9270-9268","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna\u2010Maija","family":"Tolppanen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmacy University of Eastern Finland  Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lana M.","family":"Chahine","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology University of Pittsburgh  Pittsburgh Pennsylvania USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3027-5497","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alastair J.","family":"Noyce","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Preventive Neurology, Wolfson Institute of Population Health Queen Mary University of London  London UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_5_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(17)30299-5"},{"key":"e_1_2_5_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(24)00038-3","article-title":"Nervous system disorders collaborators. 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