{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,29]],"date-time":"2026-06-29T12:54:12Z","timestamp":1782737652932,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,24]],"date-time":"2023-03-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1679616000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["aapm.onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Medical Physics"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,6]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:sec><jats:title>Background<\/jats:title><jats:p>Absorbable hydrogel spacer injected between prostate and rectum is gaining popularity for rectal sparing. The spacer alters patient anatomy and thus requires new auto\u2010contouring models.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Purpose<\/jats:title><jats:p>To report the development and comprehensive evaluation of two deep\u2010learning models for patients injected with a radio\u2010transparent (model I) versus radiopaque (model II) spacer.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods and materials<\/jats:title><jats:p>Model I was trained and cross\u2010validated by 135 cases with transparent spacer and tested on 24 cases. Using refined training methods, model II was trained and cross\u2010validated by the same dataset, but with the Hounsfield Unit distribution in the spacer overridden by that obtained from ten cases with opaque spacer. Model II was tested on 64 cases. The models auto\u2010contour eight regions of interest (ROIs): spacer, prostate, proximal seminal vesicles (SVs), left and right femurs, bladder, rectum, and penile bulb. Qualitatively, each auto contour (AC), as well as the composite set, was assessed against manual contour (MC), by a radiation oncologist using a 1 (accepted directly or after minor editing), 2 (accepted after moderate editing), 3 (accepted after major editing), and 4 (rejected) scoring scale. The efficiency gain was characterized by the mean score as nearly complete [1\u20131.75], substantial (1.75\u20132.5], meaningful (2.5\u20133.25], and no (3.25\u20134.00]. Quantitatively, the geometric similarity between AC and MC was evaluated by dice similarity coefficient (DSC) and mean distance to agreement (MDA), using tolerance recommended by AAPM TG\u2010132 Report. The results by the two models were compared to examine the outcome of the refined training methods. The large number of testing cases for model II allowed further investigation of inter\u2010observer variability in clinical dataset. The correlation between score and DSC\/MDA was studied on the ROIs with 10 or more counts of each acceptable score (1, 2, 3).<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>For model I\/model II: the mean score was 3.63\/1.30 for transparent\/opaque spacer, 2.71\/2.16 for prostate, 3.25\/2.44 for proximal SVs, 1.13\/1.02 for both femurs, 2.25\/1.25 for bladder, 3.00\/2.06 for rectum, 3.38\/2.42 for penile bulb, and 2.79\/2.20 for the composite set; the mean DSC was 0.52\/0.84 for spacer, 0.84\/0.85 for prostate, 0.60\/0.62 for proximal SVs, 0.94\/0.96 for left femur, 0.95\/0.96 for right femur, 0.91\/0.95 for bladder, 0.81\/0.84 for rectum, and 0.65\/0.65 for penile bulb; and the mean MDA was 2.9\/0.9\u00a0mm for spacer, 1.9\/1.7\u00a0mm for prostate, 2.4\/2.3\u00a0mm for proximal SVs, 0.8\/0.5\u00a0mm for left femur, 0.7\/0.5\u00a0mm for right femur, 1.5\/0.9\u00a0mm for bladder, 2.3\/1.9\u00a0mm for rectum, and 2.2\/2.2\u00a0mm for penile bulb. Model II showed significantly improved scores for all ROIs, and metrics for spacer, femurs, bladder, and rectum. Significant inter\u2010observer variability was only found for prostate. Highly linear correlation between the score and DSC was found for the two qualified ROIs (prostate and rectum).<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title><jats:p>The overall efficiency gain was meaningful for model I and substantial for model II. The ROIs meeting the clinical deployment criteria (mean score below 3.25, DSC above 0.8, and MDA below 2.5\u00a0mm) included prostate, both femurs, bladder and rectum for both models, and spacer for model II.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1002\/mp.16375","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,20]],"date-time":"2023-03-20T19:49:06Z","timestamp":1679341746000},"page":"3324-3337","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["A pair of deep learning auto\u2010contouring models for prostate cancer patients injected with a radio\u2010transparent versus radiopaque hydrogel spacer"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"50","author":[{"given":"Yi","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiation Oncology Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School  Boston Massachusetts 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