{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,31]],"date-time":"2026-01-31T04:56:23Z","timestamp":1769835383212,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":68,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,17]],"date-time":"2023-04-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1681689600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001111","name":"Cancer Australia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["APP1180776"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["APP1180776"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001111","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["aapm.onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Medical Physics"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,7]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:sec><jats:title>Background<\/jats:title><jats:p>Using radiation therapy (RT) to treat head and neck (H&amp;N) cancers requires precise targeting of the tumor to avoid damaging the surrounding healthy organs. Immobilisation masks and planning target volume margins are used to attempt to mitigate patient motion during treatment, however patient motion can still occur. Patient motion during RT can lead to decreased treatment effectiveness and a higher chance of treatment related side effects. Tracking tumor motion would enable motion compensation during RT, leading to more accurate dose delivery.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Purpose<\/jats:title><jats:p>The purpose of this paper is to develop a method to detect and segment the tumor in kV images acquired during RT. Unlike previous tumor segmentation methods for kV images, in this paper, a process for generating realistic and synthetic CT deformations was developed to augment the training data and make the segmentation method robust to patient motion. Detecting the tumor in 2D kV images is a necessary step toward 3D tracking of the tumor position during treatment.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Method<\/jats:title><jats:p>In this paper, a conditional generative adversarial network (cGAN) is presented that can detect and segment the gross tumor volume (GTV) in kV images acquired during H&amp;N RT. Retrospective data from 15 H&amp;N cancer patients obtained from the Cancer Imaging Archive were used to train and test patient\u2010specific cGANs. The training data consisted of digitally reconstructed radiographs (DRRs) generated from each patient's planning CT and contoured GTV. Training data was augmented by using synthetically deformed CTs to generate additional DRRs (in total 39\u00a0600 DRRs per patient or 25\u00a0200 DRRs for nasopharyngeal patients) containing realistic patient motion. The method for deforming the CTs was a novel deformation method based on simulating head rotation and internal tumor motion. The testing dataset consisted of 1080 DRRs for each patient, obtained by deforming the planning CT and GTV at different magnitudes to the training data.<\/jats:p><jats:p>The accuracy of the generated segmentations was evaluated by measuring the segmentation centroid error, Dice similarity coefficient (DSC) and mean surface distance (MSD). This paper evaluated the hypothesis that when patient motion occurs, using a cGAN to segment the GTV would create a more accurate segmentation than no\u2010tracking segmentations from the original contoured GTV, the current standard\u2010of\u2010care. This hypothesis was tested using the 1\u2010tailed Mann\u2010Whitney U\u2010test.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>The magnitude of our cGAN segmentation centroid error was (mean\u00a0\u00b1\u00a0standard deviation) 1.1\u00a0\u00b1\u00a00.8\u00a0mm and the DSC and MSD values were 0.90\u00a0\u00b1\u00a00.03 and 1.6\u00a0\u00b1\u00a00.5\u00a0mm, respectively. Our cGAN segmentation method reduced the segmentation centroid error (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u00a0&lt;\u00a00.001), and MSD (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u00a0=\u00a00.031) when compared to the no\u2010tracking segmentation, but did not significantly increase the DSC (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u00a0=\u00a00.294).<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title><jats:p>The accuracy of our cGAN segmentation method demonstrates the feasibility of this method for H&amp;N cancer patients during RT. Accurate tumor segmentation of H&amp;N tumors would allow for intrafraction monitoring methods to compensate for tumor motion during treatment, ensuring more accurate dose delivery and enabling better H&amp;N cancer patient outcomes.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1002\/mp.16388","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,8]],"date-time":"2023-04-08T10:10:05Z","timestamp":1680948605000},"page":"4206-4219","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Realistic CT data augmentation for accurate deep\u2010learning based segmentation of head and neck tumors in kV images acquired during radiation therapy"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"50","author":[{"given":"Mark","family":"Gardner","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"ACRF Image X Institute The University of Sydney  Eveleigh New South Wales Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Youssef Ben","family":"Bouchta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ACRF Image X Institute The University of Sydney  Eveleigh New South Wales Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Adam","family":"Mylonas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ACRF Image X Institute The University of Sydney  Eveleigh New South Wales Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Marco","family":"Mueller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ACRF Image X Institute The University of Sydney  Eveleigh New South Wales Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chen","family":"Cheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ACRF Image X Institute The University of Sydney  Eveleigh New South Wales Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Phillip","family":"Chlap","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"South Western Sydney Clinical School University of New South Wales  Liverpool New South Wales Australia"},{"name":"Ingham Institute for Applied Medical Research  Liverpool New South Wales Australia"},{"name":"Liverpool Cancer Therapy Centre Liverpool Hospital  Liverpool New South Wales Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Robert","family":"Finnegan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ingham Institute for Applied Medical Research  Liverpool New South Wales Australia"},{"name":"Northern Sydney Cancer Centre Royal North Shore Hospital  St Leonards New South Wales Australia"},{"name":"Institute of Medical Physics University of Sydney  Camperdown New South Wales Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jonathan","family":"Sykes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Blacktown Cancer &amp; 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