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However, CBCT\u00a0images are often blurred by motion originating from breathing, bowel motion, and\/or repositioning. Conventional methods often employ gating techniques to mitigate motion artifacts by assuming periodicity, which is restricted to respiratory motion. However, this does not resolve a\u2010periodic motion such as irregular breathing.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Purpose<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The purpose of this study is to estimate and correct for both periodic motion and irregular motion. We present a novel method for gate\u2010less reconstruction of motion and images\u00a0(CBCT\u2010MOTUS), thereby estimating and correcting for all non\u2010rigid 3D\u00a0motion at high temporal frequency\u00a0(per\u2010projection temporal resolution of 182\u00a0ms).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Starting from a motion\u2010corrupted image, we perform the reconstruction process by alternating between a motion estimation step and an image correction step. Motion estimation is model\u2010based, that is, it is performed directly in projection space by comparing acquired projections to simulated projections that take motion\u2010fields into account. The optimization process benefits from assumptions, including (i)\u00a0compressing the motion\u2010fields using B\u2010spline parameterization to reduce the number of parameters to estimate, (ii)\u00a0exploiting spatio\u2010temporal correlation of motion using a low\u2010rank motion model, and (iii)\u00a0enforcing smoothness using spatial regularization to include a priori knowledge on motion\u2010fields. High temporal resolution (182\u00a0ms for this scanner) is achieved as motion\u2010fields are estimated for each acquired gantry angle. The method is validated in silico, on phantoms and on clinical in vivo acquisitions.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The framework can estimate and correct irregular and periodic motion with high temporal resolution\u00a0(per\u2010projection temporal resolution of 182\u00a0ms). The motion\u2010corrected images show improved image features for all experiments with reduction of motion artifacts, such as deblurring on organ interfaces.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We have developed and validated a gate\u2010less reconstruction method\u00a0(CBCT\u2010MOTUS) for model\u2010based motion estimation and correction in CBCT\u00a0imaging for any kind of motion. High temporal resolution\u00a0(per\u2010projection temporal resolution of 182\u00a0ms) is achieved by exploiting the smoothness and compressibility of motion using a low\u2010rank B\u2010spline motion model, enabling the correction for non\u2010rigid irregular and periodic motion. These proof\u2010of\u2010principle results warrant further clinical\u00a0validation.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1002\/mp.70070","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T12:25:58Z","timestamp":1760012758000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Motion correction in CBCT imaging using gate\u2010less model\u2010based reconstruction of non\u2010rigid motion and images"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"52","author":[{"given":"Ethan","family":"Waterink","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiotherapy Utrecht University and University Medical Center Utrecht Utrecht The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rodrigo Jos\u00e9","family":"Santo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiotherapy Utrecht University and University Medical Center Utrecht Utrecht The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cornelis A. 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