{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]],"date-time":"2026-09-15T17:07:01Z","timestamp":1789492021125,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777420800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777420800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/doi.wiley.com\/10.1002\/tdm_license_1.1"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012226","name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["KY2030000197"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KY2030000197"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012226","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["aapm.onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Medical Physics"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Preclinical small animal experiments play an indispensable role in proton therapy research. However, accurate dose calculation poses a significant challenge because of the low beam energy and the requirement for submillimeter spatial resolution. Although the Monte Carlo method offers the necessary precision, its high computational cost hinders efficient implementation.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Purpose<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This study aims to develop a GPU\u2010accelerated radiation dose engine for proton radiotherapy (pGARDEN) based on the Monte Carlo method, specifically designed for fast and accurate dose calculation in small animal irradiation.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>In pGARDEN, we optimized the particle transport algorithm to better align with the GPU architecture. Moreover, various acceleration techniques were implemented to boost computational efficiency. To enhance precision, physical parameters, such as energy cutoffs for proton and electron, were tuned to better suit small animal conditions. The performance of pGARDEN was validated against Geant4 simulations and measurements across various beams and phantoms. To demonstrate its practical utility, pGARDEN was applied to calculate a multi\u2010beam proton treatment plan for a lung tumor\u2010bearing mouse model.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Compared to Geant4, the engine achieved a\u00a0&gt;\u00a01000\u2010fold speedup and a 3D gamma passing rate of\u00a0&gt;\u00a097% with a strict 1%\/0.15\u00a0mm criterion in all phantom testing scenarios. The integrated depth dose curves and dose profiles showed good agreement with measurements. In the in vivo validation, the 2D gamma passing rates with a 2%\/0.3\u00a0mm criterion were 95.52%\u00a0\u00b1\u00a00.74% for the abdomen and 94.18%\u00a0\u00b1\u00a01.08% for the thorax. Furthermore, pGARDEN calculated the treatment plan with\u00a0&lt;\u00a01% statistical uncertainty in 4.3 s on an NVIDIA GeForce RTX 4070 Ti GPU, achieving a 100% 3D gamma passing rate with a 2%\/0.3\u00a0mm criterion.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>pGARDEN can calculate proton dose distribution rapidly and accurately at submillimeter resolution for small animal. It provides a valuable tool for supporting small animal proton radiation experiments, such as the investigation of relative biological effectiveness (RBE) and new therapeutic strategies.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1002\/mp.70455","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]],"date-time":"2026-04-30T00:59:06Z","timestamp":1777510746000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["A GPU\u2010accelerated radiation dose engine for small animal proton radiotherapy"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"53","author":[{"given":"Haonian","family":"Gong","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering and Applied Physics University of Science and Technology of China  Hefei Anhui China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuxiang","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering and Applied Physics 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