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Sponges display exceptional diversity in sexual systems\u2014ranging from stable gonochorism to sequential hermaphroditism and sex reversal\u2014yet lack morphological dimorphism and any discrete gonadal structures, blurring the boundary between sex determination and gametogenesis. Here we synthesize current knowledge on sexual systems, environmental and genetic influences on sexual fate, and the evolutionary origins of sexual systems in sponges. Evidence for environmental modulation is substantial, particularly temperature\u2010driven shifts in sex ratios and reproductive timing, but environmental sex determination remains unsupported by causal evidence yet. Conversely, conserved molecular components of metazoan sex\u2010determining pathways, such as\n                    <jats:italic>fem\u20101<\/jats:italic>\n                    and\n                    <jats:italic>Dmrt<\/jats:italic>\n                    genes, are present in several sponge lineages, though their functional roles remain unresolved. We also evaluate the hypothesis that microbial symbionts contribute to sexual allocation by buffering the energetic costs of gametogenesis. Overall, sponges exhibit an evolutionarily labile system in which sexual fate may emerge from the interaction of conserved genetic modules, environmental cues, and physiological constraints. Clarifying these mechanisms will be essential for understanding the origins of sex determination in Metazoa and for predicting reproductive resilience under environmental change.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/mrd.70115","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,8]],"date-time":"2026-06-08T05:20:46Z","timestamp":1780896046000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Sex Determination in Sponges"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"93","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4942-0255","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jose M.","family":"Lorente\u2010Sorolla","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales (CSIC) Madrid Spain"},{"name":"Department of Biodiversity, Ecology and Evolution University Complutense of Madrid Madrid Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ana","family":"Riesgo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales (CSIC) Madrid Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_16_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3354\/ab00032"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00338-013-1119-9"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0098181"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1071\/MF16272"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2020.0090"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2020.578007"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jez.2760"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jnr.23884"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/sdata.2014.15"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/gbe\/evab119"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1540854"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.1001899"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00227-007-0747-4"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01632807"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10750-022-04862-4"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1744-7410.2010.00209.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00338-013-1094-1"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00018-013-1288-2"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780199657148.001.0001"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0092-8674(03)00606-8"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_22_1","first-page":"130","article-title":"La ponte et le d\u00e9veloppement de Polymastia robusta","volume":"14","author":"Borojevic R.","year":"1967","journal-title":"Cahiers de Biologie Marine"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/bies.201400065"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2006.05.036"},{"key":"e_1_2_16_25_1","unstructured":"Brito B. 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