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The varying presentations and mechanisms of PLP make it difficult to effectively provide long\u2010term pain relief. Multiple neuromodulatory approaches to treating PLP have focused on electrical stimulation of the peripheral nervous system, with varying degrees of success. More recently, research has been done to study the effects of neuroprosthetic approaches on PLP. Neuroprosthetics combine the use of a functional prosthetic with stimulation to the peripheral nerves in the residual limb. Although many of the neuroprosthetic studies focus on improving function, several have shown preliminary evidence for the reduction of severity of PLP. In this review we provide an overview of the current understanding of the neurological mechanisms that initiate and sustain PLP, as well as the neuromodulatory and neuroprosthetic approaches under development for treatment of the condition.\n                    <jats:italic>Muscle Nerve<\/jats:italic>\n                    <jats:bold>59<\/jats:bold>\n                    :154\u2013167, 2019\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/mus.26294","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,28]],"date-time":"2018-08-28T17:09:18Z","timestamp":1535476158000},"page":"154-167","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":38,"title":["Phantom limb pain: peripheral neuromodulatory and neuroprosthetic approaches to treatment"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"59","author":[{"given":"Bailey A.","family":"Petersen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Bioengineering University of Pittsburgh 3520 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh Pennsylvania 15213 USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ameya C.","family":"Nanivadekar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Bioengineering University of Pittsburgh 3520 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh Pennsylvania 15213 USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Santosh","family":"Chandrasekaran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh Pennsylvania USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lee E.","family":"Fisher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Bioengineering University of Pittsburgh 3520 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh Pennsylvania 15213 USA"},{"name":"Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh Pennsylvania USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,10,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_10_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2007.11.005"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_3_1","first-page":"121","article-title":"Postamputation pain: epidemiology, mechanisms, and treatment","volume":"6","author":"Hsu E","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Pain Res"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1590\/1413-78522015230200990"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2005.03.031"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_6_1","first-page":"1039","article-title":"et al.","volume":"81","author":"Ehde DM","year":"2000","journal-title":"Chronic phantom sensations, phantom pain, residual limb pain, and other regional pain after lower limb amputation. 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