{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,27]],"date-time":"2026-09-27T19:56:17Z","timestamp":1790538977325,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":88,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,1,28]],"date-time":"2015-01-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1422403200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":27,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["accpjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Pharmacotherapy"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2015,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>In March 2014, the largest Ebola outbreak in history exploded across West Africa. As of November 14, 2014, the World Health Organization has reported a total of 21,296 Ebola virus disease (<jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">EVD<\/jats:styled-content>) cases, including 13,427 laboratory\u2010confirmed <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">EVD<\/jats:styled-content> cases reported from the three most affected countries (Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone). As the outbreak of <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">EVD<\/jats:styled-content> has spread, clinical disease severity and national <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">EVD<\/jats:styled-content> case\u2010fatality rates have remained high (21.2\u201360.8%). Prior to 2013, several <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">EVD<\/jats:styled-content> outbreaks were controlled by using routine public health interventions; however, the widespread nature of the current <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">EVD<\/jats:styled-content> outbreak as well as cultural practices in the affected countries have challenged even the most active case identification efforts. In addition, although treatment centers provide supportive care, no effective therapeutic agents are available for <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">EVD<\/jats:styled-content>\u2010endemic countries. The ongoing <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">EVD<\/jats:styled-content> outbreak has stimulated investigation of several different therapeutic strategies that target specific viral structures and mechanisms of Ebola viruses. Six to eight putative pharmacotherapies or immunologically based treatments have demonstrated promising results in animal studies. In addition, agents composed of small interfering <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">RNA<\/jats:styled-content>s targeting specific proteins of Ebola viruses, traditional hyperimmune globulin isolated from Ebola animal models, monoclonal antibodies, and morpholino oligomers (small molecules used to block viral gene expression). A number of <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">EVD<\/jats:styled-content> therapeutic agents are now entering accelerated human trials in <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">EVD<\/jats:styled-content>\u2010endemic countries. The goal of therapeutic agent development includes postexposure prevention and <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">EVD<\/jats:styled-content> cure. As knowledge of Ebola virus virology and pathogenesis grows, it is likely that new therapeutic tools will be developed. Deployment of novel Ebola therapies will require unprecedented cooperation as well as investment to ensure that therapeutic tools become available to populations at greatest risk for <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">EVD<\/jats:styled-content> and its complications. In this article, we review several agents and strategies that are now under active development.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/phar.1545","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,1,28]],"date-time":"2015-01-28T07:05:38Z","timestamp":1422428738000},"page":"43-53","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":51,"title":["Treatment of Ebola Virus Disease"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"35","author":[{"given":"Paul E.","family":"Kilgore","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy Practice Eugene Applebaum College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences Wayne State University Detroit Michigan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"John D.","family":"Grabenstein","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Global Health &amp; Medical Affairs Merck Vaccines West Point Pennsylvania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abdulbaset M.","family":"Salim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy Practice Eugene Applebaum College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences Wayne State University Detroit Michigan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Rybak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy Practice Eugene Applebaum College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences Wayne State University Detroit Michigan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,1,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_10_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1411680"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.medmal.2014.08.005"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_4_1","first-page":"831","article-title":"Ebola virus infection in imported primates \u2013 Virginia, 1989","volume":"38","author":"Prevention USCfDCa","year":"1989","journal-title":"Morb Mortal Wkly Rep"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/jcp.43.10.813"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0140-6736(90)90737-P"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_7_1","first-page":"271","article-title":"Ebola haemorrhagic fever in Zaire, 1976","volume":"56","year":"1978","journal-title":"Bull World Health Organ"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_8_1","first-page":"247","article-title":"Ebola haemorrhagic fever in Sudan, 1976. Report of a WHO\/International Study Team","volume":"56","year":"1978","journal-title":"Bull World Health Organ"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_9_1","first-page":"997","article-title":"Ebola virus disease in southern Sudan: hospital dissemination and intrafamilial spread","volume":"61","author":"Baron RC","year":"1983","journal-title":"Bull World Health Organ"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/514290"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(10)60667-8"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2008.01.152"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1404505"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_14_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization.World Health Organization Ebola response roadmap situation report update January 14 2015. Available fromhttp:\/\/www.who.int\/csr\/disease\/ebola\/situation-reports\/archive\/en\/Accessed January 19 2015"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_15_1","first-page":"548","article-title":"Ebola viral disease outbreak\u2013West Africa, 2014","volume":"63","author":"Dixon MG","year":"2014","journal-title":"MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1513\/AnnalsATS.201410-481PS"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1411677"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11481-010-9208-9"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_19_1","first-page":"805","article-title":"Pathology of experimental Ebola virus infection in African green monkeys. Involvement of fibroblastic reticular cells","volume":"121","author":"Davis KJ","year":"1997","journal-title":"Arch Pathol Lab Med"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_20_1","first-page":"115","article-title":"Experimental infection of cynomolgus macaques with Ebola\u2010Reston filoviruses from the 1989\u20131990 U.S. epizootic","volume":"11","author":"Jahrling PB","year":"1996","journal-title":"Arch Virol Suppl"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1411249"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0950-3528(87)90002-9"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-pathol-020712-164041"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/path.4456"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2010.140430"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2249.2001.01517.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2014111057"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micinf.2011.05.002"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/514305"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1053\/jcpa.2001.0502"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9440(10)63591-2"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(04)01103-X"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.79.16.10442-10450.2005"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1517\/13543784.15.12.1523"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/ni1519"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.78.19.10370-10377.2004"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.1998.9446"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_38_1","first-page":"4","article-title":"Human fatal zaire ebola virus infection is associated with an aberrant innate immunity and with massive lymphocyte apoptosis","volume":"5","author":"Wauquier N","year":"2010","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.77.14.7945-7956.2003"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4161\/viru.21302"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1002550"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/514289"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_43_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/AOG.0000000000000533"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(79)90790-6"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00152711"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/141.5.580"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0166-3542(82)90002-X"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198601023140104"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2007.10.010"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0166-3542(94)90030-2"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/clind\/24.4.718"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0103.950308"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/clinids\/11.Supplement_4.S750"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1406.071489"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_55_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1586\/14787210.2014.948848"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_56_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jir320"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_57_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00558-11"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_58_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.78.2.999-1005.2004"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_59_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12915-014-0080-6"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_60_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2014.02.014"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_61_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2014.01.012"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_62_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.03679"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_63_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1586\/14787210.2014.948847"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_64_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature13027"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_65_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(10)60357-1"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_66_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/v4112806"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_67_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.03442-14"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_68_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/514310"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_69_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/514294"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_70_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11427-014-4746-7"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_71_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature13777"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_72_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.3006608"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_73_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1414164111"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_74_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2014.04.002"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_75_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/cr.2014.49"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_76_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01160-10"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_77_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.0030086"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_78_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.05741-11"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_79_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/504267"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_80_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40259-013-0046-1"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_81_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.0020001"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_82_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.50.3.984-993.2006"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_83_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/514298"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_84_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/520587"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_85_1","first-page":"19","volume-title":"Use of Convalescent Whole Blood or Plasma Collected from Patients Recovered from Ebola Virus Disease for Transfusion as an Empirical Treatment during Outbreaks. Version 1.0 ed","author":"Organization WH","year":"2014"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_86_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1213709109"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_87_1","first-page":"20","volume-title":"Ebola Response Roadmap","author":"Organization WH","year":"2014"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_88_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/phar.1520"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_89_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMp1409817"}],"updated-by":[{"DOI":"10.1002\/phar.1574","type":"erratum","label":"Erratum","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2015,3,24]],"date-time":"2015-03-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1427155200000}}],"container-title":["Pharmacotherapy: The Journal of Human Pharmacology and Drug Therapy"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.wiley.com\/onlinelibrary\/tdm\/v1\/articles\/10.1002%2Fphar.1545","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.wiley.com\/onlinelibrary\/tdm\/v1\/articles\/10.1002%2Fphar.1545","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/accpjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1002\/phar.1545","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,21]],"date-time":"2025-10-21T10:41:55Z","timestamp":1761043315000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/accpjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1002\/phar.1545"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,1]]},"references-count":88,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2015,1]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1002\/phar.1545"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/phar.1545","archive":["Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["0277-0008","1875-9114"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0277-0008","type":"print"},{"value":"1875-9114","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2015,1]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2015-01-28","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}