{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,14]],"date-time":"2026-06-14T22:14:04Z","timestamp":1781475244348,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,14]],"date-time":"2024-11-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1731542400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":257,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000835","name":"University of Bath","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000835","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Incontinence Associated Dermatitis (IAD) is a type of skin inflammation caused by chronic exposure to urine and\/or faeces. Current treatment strategies involve creating a barrier between the skin and urine\/faeces rather than targeting specific irritants. Urease expressing pathogens catalyse the conversion of urea, present in urine, into ammonia. The accumulation of ammonia causes an elevation in skin pH which is believed to activate faecal enzymes which damage skin, and opportunistic pathogens, which lead to secondary infections.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objectives<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>To develop a better, multi-factorial model of IAD pathogenesis, including the effect of urease-expressing bacteria on skin, mechanism of damage of urease and urease-triggered activity of faecal enzymes and secondary pathogens. To study the effect of urease inhibition on preventing IAD skin damage.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Five separate studies were made using ex vivo porcine skin and in vivo human skin models. Measurements of the change in skin barrier function were made using skin impedance, trans-epidermal water loss (TEWL), stratum corneum moisture and pH. Skin was exposed to artificial urine, inoculated with various microbes, enzymes and chemicals to examine the influence of: 1) urease-positive Proteus mirabilis 2) ammonia, 3) combination of P. mirabilis and a faecal enzyme, trypsin, 4) combination of P. mirabilis and opportunistic pathogens, Candida albicans and Staphylococcus aureus, 5) inhibition of urease using acetohydroxamic acid (AHA) on barrier function.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The urease-mediated production of ammonia had two principal effects: it elevated skin pH and caused inflammation, leading to significant breakdown in skin (stratum corneum) barrier function. Urease was found to further increase the activity of faecal enzymes and opportunistic pathogens, due to elevated skin pH. The urease inhibitor, AHA, was shown to have significantly reduced damage to skin barrier function, measured as its electrical resistance.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Targeted therapeutic strategies should be developed to prevent the manifestation of IAD, rather than creating a generic barrier between skin and urine\/faeces. Urease has been identified as a crucial component in the manifestation of IAD, due to its role in the production of ammonia. Urease inhibition provides a promising therapeutic target to halt the progression of IAD.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1002\/ski2.349","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,2]],"date-time":"2024-03-02T14:58:41Z","timestamp":1709391521000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["The Multi-Factorial Modes of Action of Urease in the Pathogenesis of Incontinence Associated Dermatitis"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"4","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8052-7739","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emily J.","family":"Owen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, University of Bath , Bath ,","place":["UK"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rachel A.","family":"Heylen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, University of Bath , Bath ,","place":["UK"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kyle","family":"Stewart","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Watercress Research Ltd. , Exeter ,","place":["UK"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paul G.","family":"Winyard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Watercress Research Ltd. , Exeter ,","place":["UK"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8981-3029","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrew Toby A.","family":"Jenkins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, University of Bath , Bath ,","place":["UK"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,2]]},"reference":[{"issue":"1","key":"2025112605220706600_ski2349-bib-0001","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1097\/00152192-200701000-00008","article-title":"Incontinence-associated dermatitis: a consensus","volume":"34","author":"Gray","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Wound, Ostomy Cont Nurs"},{"issue":"1","key":"2025112605220706600_ski2349-bib-0002","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtv.2016.02.004","article-title":"A decade of research on Incontinence-Associated Dermatitis (IAD): evidence, knowledge gaps and next steps","volume":"26","author":"Beeckman","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Tissue Viability"},{"issue":"11","key":"2025112605220706600_ski2349-bib-0003","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1097\/01.asw.0000546234.12260.61","article-title":"Incontinence-associated dermatitis: state of the science and knowledge translation","volume":"31","author":"McNichol","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv Skin Wound Care"},{"key":"2025112605220706600_ski2349-bib-0004","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s40266-017-0507-1","article-title":"Incontinence-associated dermatitis: pathogenesis, contributing factors, prevention and management options","volume":"35","author":"Beele","year":"2018","journal-title":"Drugs Aging"},{"key":"2025112605220706600_ski2349-bib-0005","first-page":"1","author":"Beeckman","year":"2015","journal-title":"Incontinence-associated dermatitis: moving prevention forward. 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