{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]],"date-time":"2026-09-28T16:57:42Z","timestamp":1790614662239,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,29]],"date-time":"2025-12-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1766966400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,29]],"date-time":"2025-12-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1766966400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/doi.wiley.com\/10.1002\/tdm_license_1.1"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Small"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    The growing adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) has heightened the demand for efficient thermal management in Li\u2010ion battery packs to ensure safety, performance, and longevity. Conventional liquid cooling techniques often fall short, prompting the use of sustainable alternatives like biodegradable dielectric fluids and advanced immersion cooling techniques. This study evaluates 1 kWh Li\u2010ion battery pack used in two\u2010wheeler EVs cooled via forced flow immersion cooling (FFIC) technique using natural ester fluids: sunflower oil (SFO), cottonseed oil (CSO), and canola oil (CAO), benchmarked against nonbiodegradable mineral oil (MO). A novel flow\u2010field design featuring triangular fins and modified wall structures is proposed to enhance heat dissipation and reduce pressure drop. Among the tested coolants, CSO in the modified design achieved the best thermal performance, reaching maximum pack temperature (MPT) of 35.3\u00b0C (\u2264 5\u00b0C) and pressure drop of 981.25 Pa at 25 L\/min\u2014outperforming the standard design, which required 40 L\/min and showed a higher pressure drop of 1767.03 Pa. The modified system also enhanced heat transfer coefficient to 102.40 W\/m\n                    <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                    K, compared to 86.12 W\/m\n                    <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                    K in the baseline case. The results highlight CSO as a superior eco\u2010friendly coolant and emphasize the significance of design optimization and fluid selection in advancing battery cooling for sustainable electric mobility.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.202507828","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,29]],"date-time":"2025-12-29T08:54:34Z","timestamp":1766998474000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Enhanced Thermal Management of Li\u2010Ion Batteries Using Forced Flow Immersion Cooling With Natural Ester Fluids for Electric Vehicles"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7672-9530","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hemavathi","family":"S","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CSIR \u2010 Central Electrochemical Research Institute\u2010Madras Unit CSIR Madras Complex  Chennai India"},{"name":"Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR)  Ghaziabad India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_10_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/cben.202200040"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2021.121853"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/acscentsci.7b00288"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jechem.2020.10.017"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A.Nagila M. G.Skanda F. X. E.Deepak et\u00a0al. \u201cUltra\u2010Fast Charging E\u2010Vehicle Batteries From PV Using DC\u2010DC Converter \u201d inInternational Conference on Edge Computing and Applications (ICECAA)(2022).","DOI":"10.1109\/ICECAA55415.2022.9936098"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijft.2022.100171"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_8_1","first-page":"379","article-title":"Air Cooling of Li\u2010ion Batteries: An Experimental Analysis","volume":"57","author":"Bubbico R.","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chemical Engineering Transactions"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/pr11123450"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1615\/HeatTransRes.2023048880"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1039\/D3MA00299C"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"L. H.Saw A. A. O.Tay andL. W.Zhang \u201cThermal Management of Lithium\u2010Ion Battery Pack With Liquid Cooling \u201d inAnnual IEEE Semiconductor Thermal Measurement and Management Symposium(2015).","DOI":"10.1109\/SEMI-THERM.2015.7100176"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/batteries10080265"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applthermaleng.2019.03.146"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applthermaleng.2022.118997"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2023.117378"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/en14164879"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"I. A.Pires R. A.Silva I. T. O.Pereira O. A.Faria T. A. C.Maia andB. J.Cardoso Filho \u201cAn Assessment of Immersion Cooling for Power Electronics: An Oil Volume Case Study \u201d in2019 IEEE Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting Baltimore MD USA(2019) 1\u20137.","DOI":"10.1109\/IAS.2019.8911921"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0957650919859109"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4052094"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2013.12.006"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.est.2023.109166"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10973-025-14285-7"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.est.2025.115400"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TDEI.2016.005371"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applthermaleng.2023.121184"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_27_1","unstructured":"Hemavathi S S.Srinivas andA. S.Prakash \u201cExperimental Studies of a Static Flow Immersion Cooling System for Fast\u2010Charging Li\u2010Ion Batteries Experimental Heat Transfer\u201d (2023)."},{"key":"e_1_2_10_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psep.2024.06.117"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2020.113715"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applthermaleng.2023.120287"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.est.2021.103835"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.est.2023.108748"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4063914"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10942912.2011.604889"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.est.2023.108560"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/batteries9110538"}],"container-title":["Small"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1002\/smll.202507828","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1002\/smll.202507828","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1002\/smll.202507828","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,12]],"date-time":"2026-02-12T08:14:10Z","timestamp":1770884050000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1002\/smll.202507828"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,29]]},"references-count":35,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1002\/smll.202507828"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/smll.202507828","archive":["Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["1613-6810","1613-6829"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1613-6810","type":"print"},{"value":"1613-6829","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,29]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2025-06-30","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2025-12-09","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2025-12-29","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}],"article-number":"e07828"}}