{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T16:27:26Z","timestamp":1788280046557,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":67,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"49","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,13]],"date-time":"2026-07-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783900800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,13]],"date-time":"2026-07-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783900800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/doi.wiley.com\/10.1002\/tdm_license_1.1"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000006","name":"Office of Naval Research","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["N000142412504"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["N000142412504"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000006","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Small"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Liquid metal (LM) microdroplets have emerged as versatile building blocks for soft and stretchable electronics, enabling compliant conductors, multilayer architectures, and reconfigurable systems. Among the manufacturing strategies used to structure these composites, gravitational settling in liquid\u2010phase polymer films offers a scalable pathway for directed assembly; however, the mechanics and kinetics governing this process remain poorly understood. Here we create an experimental platform and quantitative image\u2010analysis framework to measure the gravitational settling dynamics of highly packed LM microdroplets in liquid\u2010phase polymer resin films. By systematically varying LM microdroplets size (  diameter), resin viscosity ( mPa s), and the geometry of the film system (  thick), we elucidate the process\u2010structure relationships of gravitational settling of LM in confined films. Settling time decreases with droplet diameter following an inverse\u2010square Stokes\u2010type scaling and increases linearly with resin viscosity, which dominates the assembly rate. In contrast, film and saturated layer thicknesses exert only minor influence due to confinement effects. These relationships translate directly to a multilayer assembly process for soft interlayer via fabrication, establishing a predictive framework for scalable gravity\u2010directed LM\u00a0assembly.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.74498","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,13]],"date-time":"2026-07-13T09:26:06Z","timestamp":1783934766000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Gravity\u2010Driven Assembly Dynamics of Liquid Metal Microdroplets for Functional Composite Films"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Brittan T.","family":"Wilcox","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Mechanical Engineering, Soft Materials and Structures Lab Virginia Tech Blacksburg Virginia USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ryan C.","family":"Rothermel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mechanical Engineering, Soft Materials and Structures Lab Virginia Tech Blacksburg Virginia USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7391-5135","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael D.","family":"Bartlett","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mechanical Engineering, Soft Materials and Structures Lab Virginia Tech Blacksburg Virginia USA"},{"name":"Macromolecules Innovation Institute Virginia Tech Blacksburg Virginia USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_9_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ppsc.202500161"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms8461"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nnano.2012.206"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201600772"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2024.157534"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s42765-024-00388-7"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2022.138549"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_9_1","article-title":"Thermoelectric Performance Enhancement via Acid and Base Post\u2010Treatments for Highly Stretchable Single\u2010Walled Carbon Nanotube and Carboxymethyl Cellulose Composites","author":"Jang J.","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Applied Energy Materials"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/acsanm.3c01543"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmt.2025.102824"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201606425"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202519065"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s43246-021-00169-4"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/pol.20230616"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202203266"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/admt.202200534"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202313567"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1039\/D5MH00462D"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/rpm.20230003"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.8b21570"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/acsaelm.5c01705"},{"issue":"18","key":"e_1_2_9_23_1","first-page":"23\u00a0895","article-title":"Enhancing Electrical Conductivity of Stretchable Liquid Metal\u2013Silver Composites Through Direct Ink Writing","volume":"16","author":"Zu W.","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41563-021-00921-8"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202208569"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202104634"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202000832"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemrev.4c00850"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1039\/D4TA06879C"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202400284"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202512968"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2023.3285400"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-matsci-080819-125403"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/aelm.202500166"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/aelm.202001006"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41928-024-01194-0"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1039\/D5MH00911A"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/mi12020146"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202003694"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201301400"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/admt.202100650"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmt.2025.102938"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_43_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addma.2023.103925"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.72447"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202304101"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202501341"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202512980"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41928-024-01268-z"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1039\/D3SM00971H"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.202512413"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.202203700"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41528-025-00452-1"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.5c13752"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202308113"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_55_1","volume-title":"Microhydrodynamics: Principles and Selected Applications","author":"Kim S.","year":"2013"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_56_1","unstructured":"R.Clift J. R.Grace andM. E.Weber \u201cBubbles Drops and Particles \u201d (2005)."},{"key":"e_1_2_9_57_1","first-page":"8","article-title":"On the Effect of the Internal Friction of Fluids on the Motion of Pendulums","volume":"9","author":"Stokes G. G.","year":"1851","journal-title":"Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_58_1","volume-title":"Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering","author":"McCabe W. L.","year":"1967"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_59_1","volume-title":"Introduction to Practical Fluid Flow","author":"King R. P.","year":"2002"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_60_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/aic.690390106"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_61_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applthermaleng.2020.116451"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_62_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1051\/epjap\/2018180271"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_63_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/0508-3443\/9\/12\/304"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_64_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.64.2727"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_65_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1039\/c0sm00038h"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_66_1","volume-title":"Low Reynolds Number Hydrodynamics: With Special Applications to Particulate Media","author":"Brenner H.","year":"2012"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_67_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022112080000870"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_68_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/0034-4885\/79\/2\/025901"}],"container-title":["Small"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1002\/smll.74498","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1002\/smll.74498","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1002\/smll.74498","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T16:04:36Z","timestamp":1788278676000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1002\/smll.74498"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,13]]},"references-count":67,"journal-issue":{"issue":"49","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1002\/smll.74498"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/smll.74498","archive":["Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["1613-6810","1613-6829"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1613-6810","type":"print"},{"value":"1613-6829","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,13]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2026-03-05","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2026-06-24","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2026-07-13","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}],"article-number":"e74498"}}