{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,19]],"date-time":"2026-08-19T06:30:25Z","timestamp":1787121025508,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"Wiley","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787011200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787011200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/doi.wiley.com\/10.1002\/tdm_license_1.1"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000270","name":"Natural Environment Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NE\/W005115\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NE\/W005115\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000270","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000270","name":"Natural Environment Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NE\/P011063\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NE\/P011063\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000270","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000266","name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["EP\/K038885\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EP\/K038885\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000266","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Small"],"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    Antibiotic resistance has become a serious threat to global health. It frequently emerges in real\u2010world environments such as biofilms, where antibiotic gradients impose selective pressures that drive bacterial adaptation. However, the mechanisms underlying resistance development remain poorly understood, largely due to challenges in experimentally controlling confounding parameters. Here, we report a 3D microfluidic platform that enables real\u2010time monitoring of bacterial dynamics under well\u2010defined antibiotic gradients, along with programmable cell retrieval to identify key factors in resistance development. We show that motile\n                    <jats:italic>Escherichia coli<\/jats:italic>\n                    migrated randomly within the gradients regardless of antibiotic class (i.e., gentamicin, ciprofloxacin, and ampicillin). Resistance emerged only when a critical mass of bacteria sustained migration through the gradient for a sufficiently duration, revealing a previously unrecognized migration\u2010duration threshold for adaptive evolution. Whole\u2010genome resequencing revealed gene mutations in the resistant cells, including mutations in ATP synthase\u2010related genes (i.e.,\n                    <jats:italic>atpG<\/jats:italic>\n                    ,\n                    <jats:italic>atpD<\/jats:italic>\n                    , and\n                    <jats:italic>atpF<\/jats:italic>\n                    ). A trade\u2010off between resistance and cell growth was also observed. Similar phenomena were observed in other motile bacteria species, including\n                    <jats:italic>Serratia marcescens<\/jats:italic>\n                    . Overall, we demonstrate that cell motility is a critical determinant of resistance development in heterogeneous antibiotic landscapes. Targeting cell motility and growth could offer effective strategies to combat antibiotic resistance in motile bacteria.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.75309","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,19]],"date-time":"2026-08-19T06:14:50Z","timestamp":1787120090000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Programmable 3D Microfluidics Reveals Motility\u2010Driven Antibiotic Resistance Evolution in Gradients"],"prefix":"10.1002","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9108-7815","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiaobo","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"James Watt School of Engineering Advanced Research Centre (ARC) University of Glasgow  Glasgow UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jianan","family":"Yin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Synthetic Biology and Biomanufacturing State Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology Tianjin Key Laboratory of Biological and Pharmaceutical Engineering Tianjin University  Tianjin China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yanqing","family":"Song","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"James Watt School of Engineering Advanced Research Centre (ARC) University of Glasgow  Glasgow UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andrew","family":"Glidle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"James Watt School of Engineering Advanced Research Centre (ARC) University of Glasgow  Glasgow UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"William","family":"Sloan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"James Watt School of Engineering Advanced Research Centre (ARC) University of Glasgow  Glasgow UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3008-4869","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"He","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Synthetic Biology and Biomanufacturing State Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology Tianjin Key Laboratory of Biological and Pharmaceutical Engineering Tianjin University  Tianjin China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maggie","family":"Cusack","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Munster Technological University  Cork Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cindy J.","family":"Smith","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"James Watt School of Engineering Advanced Research Centre (ARC) University of Glasgow  Glasgow UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7693-377X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Huabing","family":"Yin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"James Watt School of Engineering Advanced Research Centre (ARC) University of Glasgow  Glasgow 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