{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,26]],"date-time":"2026-09-26T08:01:32Z","timestamp":1790409692711,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":291,"publisher":"Wiley","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,26]],"date-time":"2026-09-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790380800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,26]],"date-time":"2026-09-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790380800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/doi.wiley.com\/10.1002\/tdm_license_1.1"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Small"],"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>The emergence of multidrug\u2010resistant (MDR) bacteria necessitates the development of next\u2010generation antimicrobial strategies beyond conventional antibiotics. Upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs), owing to their anti\u2010Stokes luminescence under near\u2010infrared (NIR) excitation, offer a versatile platform for deep\u2010tissue antibacterial photodynamic therapy (aPDT). This review focuses on the fundamental photonic mechanisms of UCNPs, including rational dopant selection, core\u2013shell structural engineering, and spectral tuning strategies. These photophysical features are closely related to energy transfer pathways to PS\u2014such as F\u00f6rster resonance energy transfer (FRET), direct excitation, and under specific interfacial conditions, Dexter exchange\u2014to optimize reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation efficiency. We also highlight advanced nanoplatforms that integrate UCNPs with stimuli\u2010responsive carriers and targeting ligands, enabling site\u2010specific activation, synergistic antibacterial functions, and multimodal therapeutic effects. Translational prospects and unresolved challenges are further discussed, with an emphasis on mechanistic insights and design principles toward clinically relevant UCNPs\u2010enabled aPDT systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.75478","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,26]],"date-time":"2026-09-26T07:42:41Z","timestamp":1790408561000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Mechanism\u2010Guided Engineering of Upconversion Nanoparticles for Antibacterial Phototherapy: From Photonic Principles to Translational Nanosystems"],"prefix":"10.1002","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-0826-2340","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhe","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CNRS UMR 5623 Laboratoire Softmat Universit\u00e9 de Toulouse  Toulouse France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5942-9117","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Calum","family":"Johnston","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratoire de Microbiologie et G\u00e9n\u00e9tique Mol\u00e9culaires (LMGM, UMR5100) Centre de Biologie Int\u00e9grative (CBI) Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS)  Toulouse France"},{"name":"Universit\u00e9 de Toulouse  Toulouse France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4291-6861","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Barbara","family":"Lonetti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CNRS UMR 5623 Laboratoire Softmat Universit\u00e9 de Toulouse  Toulouse France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5707-4471","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cl\u00e9ment","family":"Roux","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CNRS UMR 5623 Laboratoire Softmat Universit\u00e9 de Toulouse  Toulouse France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_13_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.21037\/jeccm.2018.11.08","article-title":"Multidrug Resistant Bacteria in Critically Ill Patients: A Step Further Antibiotic Therapy","volume":"2","author":"Tosi M.","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Emergency and Critical Care Medicine"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.201900608","article-title":"Rejuvenated Photodynamic Therapy for Bacterial Infections","volume":"8","author":"Jia Q.","year":"2019","journal-title":"Advanced Healthcare Materials"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.3109\/1040841X.2013.804031","article-title":"Horizontal Gene Transfer in Human Pathogens","volume":"41","author":"Juhas M.","year":"2015","journal-title":"Critical Reviews in Microbiology"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4554","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1000087107","article-title":"Incomplete Recovery and Individualized Responses of the Human Distal Gut Microbiota to Repeated Antibiotic Perturbation","volume":"108","author":"Dethlefsen L.","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.c2096","article-title":"Effect of Antibiotic Prescribing in Primary Care on Antimicrobial Resistance in Individual Patients: Systematic Review and Meta\u2010analysis","volume":"340","author":"Costelloe C.","year":"2010","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"e_1_2_13_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2022.102150","article-title":"Antibiotic Resistance in the Commensal Human Gut Microbiota","volume":"68","author":"Lamberte L. 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