{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T14:58:50Z","timestamp":1790780330148,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"Wiley","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790726400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790726400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/doi.wiley.com\/10.1002\/tdm_license_1.1"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2410431"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2410431"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Small"],"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    Microbial bioelectrocatalysis demands more than electron\u2010conducting surfaces\u2014it demands living microenvironments that hydrate, protect, and nourish whole\u2010cell biocatalysts. This biological imperative remains unaddressed by conventional electrode design. Here, we fundamentally reframe microbial biobattery architecture through living habitat engineering, drawing inspiration from the human small intestine\u2014a biological interface evolutionarily optimized to sustain dense, metabolically active microbial communities through high\u2010surface\u2010area villi, mucus\u2010mediated hydration, and short\u2010path nutrient exchange. We translate these principles into spore\u2010programmed conductive hydrogel pillar arrays, in which dormant\n                    <jats:italic>Bacillus subtilis<\/jats:italic>\n                    endospores are embedded within poly(3,4\u2010ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate)\u2013poly(vinyl alcohol)\/reduced graphene oxide hydrogel villi that simultaneously serve as microbial reservoirs, bioelectrochemical scaffolds, and electron\u2010harvesting conduits. Upon nutrient contact, spores germinate on demand into electroactive cells. This villi topology delivers an 8.3\u2010fold volumetric power density enhancement (8.04 to 66.45 \u00b5W cm\n                    <jats:sup>\u2212<\/jats:sup>\n                    <jats:sup>3<\/jats:sup>\n                    ) over planar controls under volume\u2010matched conditions. A 24\u2010device geometry matrix uncovers a coupled radius\u2013height design rule, with peak single\u2010villus power of 8.35 \u00b5W at optimal dimensions. Conformable villi patches demonstrate nutrient\u2010triggered electricity generation in a simulated pipe environment using a wastewater\u2010mimicking nutrient\/electrolyte solution, while a separate self\u2010powered array achieves spatially resolved bioelectrochemical sensing. This work establishes living habitat engineering as a transformative paradigm for activatable, architecture\u2010programmed, and potentially shelf\u2010stable microbial biobatteries.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.76091","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T14:25:52Z","timestamp":1790778352000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Intestinal Villi\u2010Inspired Living Biobatteries via Habitat\u2010Engineered Conductive Hydrogel Architectures"],"prefix":"10.1002","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-7383-644X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ruohan","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Bioelectronics &amp; Microsystems Laboratory Department of Electrical &amp; Computer Engineering State University of New Yorkat Binghamton  Binghamton New York USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Botian","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bioelectronics &amp; Microsystems Laboratory Department of Electrical &amp; Computer Engineering State University of New Yorkat Binghamton  Binghamton New York USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1097-2391","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Seokheun","family":"Choi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bioelectronics &amp; Microsystems Laboratory Department of Electrical &amp; Computer Engineering State University of New Yorkat Binghamton  Binghamton New York USA"},{"name":"Center for Research in Advanced Sensing Technologies &amp; Environmental Sustainability State University of New York at Binghamton  Binghamton New York USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_10_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/natrevmats.2016.7"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.201300340"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3109\/00365521.2014.898326"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro3552"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579\u2010023\u201000969\u20100"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41575\u2010022\u201000675\u2010x"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nri.2016.88"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41596\u2010021\u201000674\u20103"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579\u2010019\u20100173\u2010x"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.202107902","article-title":"Electrogenic Bacteria Promise New Opportunities for Powering, Sensing, and Synthesizing","volume":"18","author":"Choi S.","year":"2022","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1039\/c1ee02511b"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_13_1","first-page":"2024","article-title":"High Power Density Redox\u2010Mediated Shewanella Microbial Flow Fuel Cells","volume":"15","author":"Zhang L.","journal-title":"Nature Communications"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1913463117"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2018.12.116"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nri2653"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/bit.21875"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/es0627592"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.3390\/batteries9020119","article-title":"Biofuel Cells and Biobatteries: Misconceptions, Opportunities, and Challenges","volume":"9","author":"Choi S.","year":"2023","journal-title":"Batteries"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253\u2010009\u20102378\u20109"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10008\u2010011\u20101395\u20107"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751\u20107915.2011.00302.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1926","DOI":"10.1039\/b819866g","article-title":"Techniques for the Study and Development of Microbial Fuel Cells: An Electrochemical Perspective","volume":"38","author":"Zhao F.","year":"2009","journal-title":"Chemical Society Reviews"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/es901939r"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/admt.201800118"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1002\/fuce.201200225","article-title":"Enhanced Performance of MEMS Microbial Fuel Cells Using Electrospun Microfibrous Anode and Optimizing Operation","volume":"13","author":"Fraiwan A.","year":"2013","journal-title":"Fuel Cells"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/aenm.201601364"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.5c20049"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2019.121641"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevApplied.12.014018","article-title":"Theory of Ion and Electron Transport Coupled With Biochemical Conversions in an Electroactive Biofilm","volume":"12","author":"Lichtervelde A. 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