{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T17:18:45Z","timestamp":1791307125663,"version":"4.3.1"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2011,3,7]],"date-time":"2011-03-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1299456000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Environmental Toxicology"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2013,2]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>Chromium(III) oxide (Cr<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>O<jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>) is used for industrial applications such as catalysts and pigments. In the classical form, namely the fine particle, Cr<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>O<jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub> is insoluble and chemically stable. It is classified as a low\u2010toxicity chromium compound. Recently, industrial application of nanoparticles (a new form composed of small particles with a diameter of \u2264100 nm, in at least one dimension) has been increasing. Cellular effects induced by Cr<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>O<jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub> nanoparticles are not known. To shed light upon this, the release of soluble chromium from Cr<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>O<jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub> nano\u2010 and fine\u2010particles in culture medium was compared. Fine Cr<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>O<jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub> particles were insoluble in the culture medium; on the contrary, Cr<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>O<jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub> nanoparticles released soluble hexavalent chromium into the culture medium. Cr<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>O<jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub> nanoparticles showed severe cytotoxicity. The effect of Cr<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>O<jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub> nanoparticles on cell viability was higher than that of fine particles. Cr<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>O<jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub> nanoparticles showed cytotoxicity equal to that of hexavalent chromium (K<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>Cr<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>O<jats:sub>7<\/jats:sub>). Human lung carcinoma A549 cells and human keratinocyte HaCaT cells showed an increase in intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) level and activation of antioxidant defense systems on exposure to Cr<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>O<jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub> nanoparticles. Exposure of Cr<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>O<jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub> nanoparticles led to caspase\u20103 activation, showing that the decrease in cell viability by exposure to Cr<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>O<jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub> nanoparticles was caused by apoptosis. Cellular responses were stronger in the Cr<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>O<jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub> nanoparticles\u2010exposed cells than in fine Cr<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>O<jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>\u2010 and CrCl<jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>\u2010exposed cells. Cellular uptake of Cr<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>O<jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub> particles were observed in nano\u2010 and fine\u2010particles. The cellular influence of the extracellular soluble trivalent chromium was lower than that of Cr<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>O<jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub> nanoparticles. Cr<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>O<jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub> nanoparticles showed cytotoxicity by hexavalent chromium released at outside and inside of cells. The cellular influences of Cr<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>O<jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub> nanoparticles matched those of hexavalent chromium. In conclusion, Cr<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>O<jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub> nanoparticles have a high cytotoxic potential. \u00a9 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. 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