{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]],"date-time":"2026-07-29T13:06:49Z","timestamp":1785330409155,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,17]],"date-time":"2026-07-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784246400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":16,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782864000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/doi.wiley.com\/10.1002\/tdm_license_1.1"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100007636","name":"Deutsche Bundesstiftung Umwelt","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100007636","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Water Environment Research"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Climate change and an increasing global population are supposed to cause progressive water shortages in the future. Using rainwater in water tanks for evaporative cooling systems as a substitute might help reduce water consumption needed for cooling. Therefore, our study identified the present microbiota in evaporative cooling systems (ECS) and used an ex situ approach to identify effects of the substitution of tap water with rainwater. Culturable cell counts (CCC) based on colony\u2010forming units for total counts or selected pathogens, total biofilm masses based on crystal violet staining, and the bacterial composition (16S rRNA sequencing) of biofilms sampled in different ECS were considered. Data suggest that rainwater does not enhance biofilm growth, since both culturable cells and total biofilm mass tended to decrease when using rainwater instead of tap water. Interestingly, biocide treatment slightly enhanced the total biofilm mass and CCC. Sequencing data revealed differences in the microbiota when using the different water types; yet, the community shift did not include an enrichment of typical pathogens in both cases. Overall, our results suggest that a substitution of tap water with rainwater for ECS creates no disadvantage with regard to the microbial safety and might allow a reduction of financial and resource investments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/wer.70496","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,17]],"date-time":"2026-07-17T07:15:48Z","timestamp":1784272548000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The Microbiota of Evaporative Cooling Systems and the Impact of Rainwater as an Alternative Water Source"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"98","author":[{"given":"Nicole","family":"van Leuven","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Hochschule Rhein\u2010Waal  Kleve Germany"},{"name":"Food Microbiology and Hygiene, University of Bonn  Bonn Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thomas J.","family":"Tewes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hochschule Rhein\u2010Waal  Kleve Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ralf","family":"Lucassen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hochschule Rhein\u2010Waal  Kleve Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andr\u00e9","family":"Lipski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Food Microbiology and Hygiene, University of Bonn  Bonn Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rolf","family":"Rheinschmidt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Gesundheitsamt des Kreises Mettmann  Erkrath Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Matthias","family":"Kleinke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hochschule Rhein\u2010Waal  Kleve Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8158-521X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dirk P.","family":"Bockm\u00fchl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hochschule Rhein\u2010Waal  Kleve Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_11_2_1","volume-title":"ASTM E2871\u201325: Standard Test Method for Determining Disinfectant Efficacy Against Biofilm Grown in the CDC Biofilm Reactor Using the Single Tube Method","author":"ASTM International","year":"2025"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_3_1","volume-title":"EN ISO 16266:2008: Water Quality. Detection and Enumeration of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Method by Membrane Filtration","author":"CEN European Committee for Standardization","year":"2008"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/MICROORGANISMS9020291"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/13241583.2015.11465459"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/08927014.2017.1367386"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/femsec\/fiy044"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_8_1","volume-title":"DIN EN ISO 6222:1999: Water Quality\u2014Enumeration of Culturable Micro\u2010Organisms\u2014Colony Count by Inoculation in a Nutrient Agar Culture Medium (ISO 6222:1999); German Version EN ISO 6222: 1999","author":"DIN German Institute for Standardization","year":"1999"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_9_1","volume-title":"DIN EN ISO 7899\u20102:2000: Water Quality\u2014Detection and Enumeration of Intestinal Enterococci Part 2: Membrane Filtration Method (ISO 7899\u20102:2000); German Version EN ISO 7899\u20102:2000","author":"DIN German Institute for Standardization","year":"2000"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_10_1","volume-title":"DIN EN ISO 9308\u20101:2017: Water Quality\u2014Enumeration of Escherichia coli and Coliform Bacteria\u2014Part 1: Membrane Filtration Method for Waters With Low Bacterial Background Flora (ISO 9308\u20101:2014 + Amd 1:2016); German Version EN ISO 9308\u20101:2014 + A1:2017","author":"DIN German Institute for Standardization","year":"2017"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_11_1","volume-title":"DIN EN ISO 11731:2019: Water Quality Enumeration of Legionella (ISO 11731:2017); German Version EN ISO 11731: 2017","author":"DIN German Institute for Standardization","year":"2019"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/J.SCITOTENV.2009.06.009"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/PATHOGENS4020373"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1159\/000452197"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2311.161584"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rineng.2023.101153"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_17_1","volume-title":"Verordnung \u00fcber die Qualit\u00e4t von Wasser f\u00fcr den menschlichen Gebrauch (Trinkwasserverordnung TrinkwV)","author":"German Federal Ministry of Health","year":"2023"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"German Government.2017.","DOI":"10.1016\/S1464-2859(17)30263-8"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings14113504"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41545\u2010019\u20100030\u20105"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/S12223\u2010015\u20100429\u20104"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nmni.2020.100794"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0011\u20102240(03)00046\u20104"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/S41586\u2010023\u201006879\u20108"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rineng.2023.101059"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/08927010802713414"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0189937"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/J.JCLEPRO.2014.10.021"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajic.2009.04.285"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/MMBR.00051\u201012"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2020.113591"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2019.115252"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1134\/S106235901805014X"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4614-1698-2"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/J.MIB.2018.07.006"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dibe.2025.100702"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhin.2007.07.022"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens11091032"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/J.WATRES.2021.117013"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_40_1","volume-title":"Laundry Detergents","author":"Smulders E.","year":"2002"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_41_1","volume-title":"Water Quality, Incidental Treatment Train Mechanisms and Health Risks Associated With Urban Rainwater Harvesting Systems in Australia (University of Newcastle)","author":"Spinks A. T.","year":"2007"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/J.WATRES.2006.01.032"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_43_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2019.03.249"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11367\u2010018\u20101535\u20108"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_45_1","volume-title":"VDI 2047 Part 2: Open Recooler Systems Securing Hygienically Sound Operation of Evaporative Cooling Systems (VDI Cooling Tower Code of Practice)","author":"VDI The Association of German Engineers","year":"2019"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2166\/WST.2013.334"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_47_1","volume-title":"Legionella and the Prevention of Legionellosis","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2007"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/J.EGYPRO.2012.01.003"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/MBIO.00584\u201012"}],"container-title":["Water Environment Research"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1002\/wer.70496","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1002\/wer.70496","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1002\/wer.70496","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]],"date-time":"2026-07-29T12:33:53Z","timestamp":1785328433000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1002\/wer.70496"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1002\/wer.70496"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/wer.70496","archive":["Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["1061-4303","1554-7531"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1061-4303","type":"print"},{"value":"1554-7531","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2026-03-25","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2026-06-27","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2026-07-17","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}],"article-number":"e70496"}}