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Much recent work has focused on the transcriptional and biochemical regulation of cell behavior and morphogenesis. However, exciting new data reveal that bioelectrical properties of cells and their microenvironment exert a profound influence on cell differentiation, proliferation, and migration. Ion channels and pumps expressed in all cells, not just excitable nerve and muscle, establish resting potentials that vary across tissues and change with significant developmental events. Most importantly, the spatiotemporal gradients of these endogenous transmembrane voltage potentials (\n                    <jats:italic>V<\/jats:italic>\n                    <jats:sub>mem<\/jats:sub>\n                    ) serve as instructive patterning cues for large\u2010scale anatomy, providing organ identity, positional information, and prepattern template cues for morphogenesis. New genetic and pharmacological techniques for molecular modulation of bioelectric gradients\n                    <jats:italic>in vivo<\/jats:italic>\n                    have revealed the ability to initiate complex organogenesis, change tissue identity, and trigger regeneration of whole vertebrate appendages. A large segment of the spatial information processing that orchestrates individual cells' programs toward the anatomical needs of the host organism is electrical; this blurs the line between memory and decision\u2010making in neural networks and morphogenesis in nonneural tissues. Advances in cracking this bioelectric code will enable the rational reprogramming of shape in whole tissues and organs, revolutionizing regenerative medicine, developmental biology, and synthetic bioengineering.\n                    <jats:italic>WIREs Syst Biol Med<\/jats:italic>\n                    2013, 5:657\u2013676. doi: 10.1002\/wsbm.1236\n                  <\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    This article is categorized under:\n                    <jats:list list-type=\"explicit-label\">\n                      <jats:list-item>\n                        <jats:p>Developmental Biology &gt; Developmental Processes in Health and Disease<\/jats:p>\n                      <\/jats:list-item>\n                      <jats:list-item>\n                        <jats:p>Laboratory Methods and Technologies &gt; Imaging<\/jats:p>\n                      <\/jats:list-item>\n                      <jats:list-item>\n                        <jats:p>Developmental Biology &gt; Stem Cell Biology and Regeneration<\/jats:p>\n                      <\/jats:list-item>\n                    <\/jats:list>\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/wsbm.1236","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,7,29]],"date-time":"2013-07-29T15:55:18Z","timestamp":1375113318000},"page":"657-676","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":103,"title":["Reprogramming cells and tissue patterning via bioelectrical pathways: molecular mechanisms and biomedical opportunities"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"5","author":[{"given":"Michael","family":"Levin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, Tufts Center for Regenerative Developmental Biology Tufts University Medford MA USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,7,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_9_1_2_1","volume-title":"Electric Fields in Vertebrate Repair","author":"Borgens R","year":"1989"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_1_3_1","volume-title":"Ionic Currents in Development","author":"Nuccitelli R","year":"1986"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_1_4_1","unstructured":"Pullar CE. 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